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STATE OF NEW JERSEY 

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT 

DIVISION OF FORESTRY AND PARKS 



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FORESTRY FOR PROFIT 

Bg WILLIS cTW. BAKER 
cylSSOCIATE STATE FORESTER 




TRENTON, NEV^ JERSEY 
JULY 1, 1922 



SD315 




NOV 5 1923 

oncUMENTS DIVISION 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

THE NEED FOR FORESTRY 3 

NEW JERSEY'S TIMBER RESOURCES:— Forest area; Forest regions; 
Cutover and burned forest; Merchantable timber; Rank of species; 
Timber consumption; Timber growth and future production; Forest 
values 3 



THE PUBLIC'S INTERESTS DEMAND STATE AID:— An adequate tim- 
ber supply is essential; State Foresters aid woodland owners; Expert 
advice ; Cost ; Necessity for action is recognized 6 



WHAT IS FORESTRY? — Forestry is farming applied to woodlands; For- 
estry never appropriates agricultural soils; Forest planting is fre- 
quently advisable; F'orestry demands and creates good markets; Fire 
protection is absolutely essential 9 



WOODLAND MANAGEMENT i4 

PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY:— Forestry pays good profits; A definite plan 

of work; What are productive woods 14 

Leave a Full Stand: — Competition for light; Root competition; How to 
determine a full stand ; How to get a full stand 15 

Favor Thrifty, Vigorous Trees: — Cut dead, dying and weakened trees; 
Cut crooked, misformed and injured trees; Cut mature and over-mature 
trees 16 

Favor Best Species: — Consider the products desired ; Resistance to ene- 
mies ; Influence of site 17 

Soils Adapted to Various Species: — Fertile, well-drained soils; Wet, 
swampy land ; Dry, rocky upland ; South Jersey sands 18 

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF FORESTRY:— Various types of woods 

require different treatment 19 

Young, Even-aged Mixed Hardwoods: — Thinning; Examples of thin- 
nings ; Records of thinnings 19 

Middle-aged Mixed Hardwoods: — Treatment needed ; Results of im- 
provement cutting; Reproduction cutting; Sprout and seedling repro- 
duction; Control of sprouting; Control of seeding 23 

Mature Mixed Hardwoods: — Maturity of growth; Merchantable ma- 
turity; Treatment cf mature stands 26 

Culled Hardwoods: — Improvement cutting in culled hardwoods 28 

Fine Forests: — Pitch pine and shortieaf pine; Reproduction of pine; 
Pine sprouts; Pine a paying crop for South Jersey; Yields from pine.. 28 



PAGE 

Pine and Hardwoods: — How to favor the best species; Pure pine or 
mixed pine and oak 31 

White Cedar Forests: — Cedar is capable of intensive management; 
Cedar must be tiiinned carefully 32 



MARKETING FOREST PRODUCTS:— Investigate markets; Products for 
home use; Local sale of products; Shipping products; Sale of stumpage ; 
Timber sale contracts; A home sawmill; Directory of dealers and in- 
dustries 34 



WOODS WORK:— 39 

Season to Cut: — Fall and Winter; Work in the woods at odd times 39 

How to Cut — Logging: — Trees marked for cutting; Felling trees; Low 
stumps; Thorough utilization; Hauling; Seasoning and storing 
products 40 

Slash Disposal: — Logging slash is a menace; Lopping tops; Burning 
slash ; New Jersey's Fire Law 43 



FOREST PLANTING:— The need for plaming 45 

WHERE TO PLANT:— Abandoned fields; Burned woodlands; Woods de- 
nuded by careless lumbering; Under-planting; Special timber crops; 
Farm timber 45 



WHAT TO PLANT: — Species adapted to conditions; Species suited for the 
products desired; Hardwoods or evergreens; Pure or mixed planta- 
tions; Quick growing trees; Nut trees; Species not recommended; Table 
of species recommended for planting 47 



HOW TO PLANT: — Season to plant; Young trees more satisfactory than 
sowing seed; Size of trees; A home nursery; Use of wild stock; Where 
to get trees; How to handle trees before planting; Heeling in; Prepar- 
ing the ground; Light requirements; Spacing; Trees per acre at various 
spacings ; Care of seedlings while planting; Planting; Important direc- 
tions to follow ; Planting crews ; Lining and spacing 51 



SUBSEQUENT CARE:— Little attention needed; Replacements; Cutting 

back; Cleaning; Pruning limbs; Thinning 56 



COST AND PROFITS OF PLANTING:— Cost of labor; Cost of trees; Cost 
of average plantations ; Profits from plantations ; Expected yields and 
profits 57 



PAGE 

HELPFUL INFORMATION. 6i 



CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF FOREST TREES:— Hardwoods and 
evergreens 



61 



Hardwoods or Deciduous Species: — Oak, Hickory, Ash, Chestnut, Tulip 
poplar, Basswood, Aspen, Cottonwood, Elm, Beech, Maple, Birch, Gum, 
Locust, Walnut, Butternut, Cherry, Sycamore, Apple, Sassafras, Dog- 
wood, Persimmon, Holly, Hornbeam, Blue beech, Witchhazel 61 

Conifers or Evergreen Species: — Pine, Spruce, Fir, Cedar, Larch, Hem- 
lock 66 



MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD:— Great variation in mechani- 
cal properties; Weight; Hardness, Stiffness; Strength; Resistance to 

shock ; Durability 69 

Table of mechanical properties of woods 72 



WOOD PRODUCTS AND USES:— Lumber ; Poles; Furnace poles; Piling; 
Ties; Fence posts; Mine timbers; Cordwood ; Baskets; Boxes; Cooper- 
age; Wood pulp and paper; Excelsior; Charcoal; Hardwood distilla- 
tion; Naval stores; Tanning; Dyewoods; Wood preservation; Mis- 
cellaneous products 70 



TIMBER ESTIMATING:— Sample plots ; The strip method 77 

Measuring Trees: — Diameter; Height; Recording measurements 78 

Computing the Contents of Trees: — Volume tables; Sample volume 
tables of Red Oak in board feet of sawed lumber; Small, second growth 
hardwood cordwood in cubic feet; Shortleaf pine in board feet of 
lumber ; Pine cordwood in cubic feet 79 

UNITS OF MEASURE— CONVERTING FACTORS:— Board measure; 
Log measure; Comparison of Doyle and Scribner Log rules; Scribner 
Log rule; Cord measure; Cubic measure; Table of converting factors; 
Table of quantity of material contained in trees of various sizes 82 

TREE PESTS: — Forest insects and tree diseases; Where to get information. 85 



FORESTRY FOR PROFIT 

bg WILLIS cTVl. BAKERj 
c^issociate State Forester 



THE NEED FOR FORESTRY 

The purpose of this publication is to advise woodland owners how to 
make their timber tracts productive and profitable by the practical application 
of common sense management — forestry. Much has been said and written 
of the necessity for checking the devastation of our rapidly diminishing forest 
resources, and of the need for providing a future timber supply. The average 
person, and the average woodland owner, agrees that "such waste should not 
be allowed and people really ought to do something about it." Meanwhile he 
continues to neglect his own woodlands, apparently not realizing that he can 
help solve the Nation's timber problem, and at the same time greatly in- 
crease the value and income of his property by giving his woods a part of the 
same attention he would give his work, his farm, or his business. The aver- 
age owner must realize that his woodlands are not a liability, but an asset; 
that it will pay him in dollars and cents to treat them right. This publica- 
tion will inform him how to get results. 

For those who do not realize the seriousness of the timber shortage that 
is already beginning to make itself felt, a few facts regarding New Jersey's 
forest resources and timber consumption will be enlightening. The following 
estimate is based on data collected in 1921. 

NEW JERSEY'S TIMBER RESOURCES 

Forest Area. — It is a well-known fact that our forests have been seriously 
depleted by wasteful lumbering, devastated by repeated forest fires, abused by 
the public and neglected by their owners. Practically all of the original or 
virgin forest has disappeared, but New Jersey still has two million acres of 
second-growth and cut-over woodland, which is 46 per cent of its total upland 
area. Probably one-quarter of this forest area consists of soils that could and 
some time may be used for agriculture. Yet for many j'ears forest land 
cleared for farming and industrial development has been closely balanced by 
abandoned fields reverting to woodland. At least 1,500,000 acres must grow 
trees or remain forever unproductive. 

Forest Regions. — New Jersey's forests are divided into two distinct 
regions. The hardwood region of 750,000 acres (three-eighths of the total 
forest area) lies north and west of a line from Seabright to Glassboro to 
Bridgeton, and includes North Jersey uplands as well as the heavier soils of 
the Raritan and Delaware valleys. The South Jersey pine region of 
1,250,000 acres (five-eighths of the total forest area) lies south and east of 
this line, on the light, sandy soils of the coastal plain. (See map, page 5.) 

The hardwood region contains mainly deciduous species: oak, chestnut, 
maple, hickory, beech, tulip poplar, ash, birch, gum, elm, etc., with small 



quantities of the conifers (evergreens), white and pitch pine, red cedar and 
hemlock, and negligible quantities of black spruce, white cedar and tamarack. 

The South Jersey pine region contains principally pitch and short-leaf 
pine and white cedar, with considerable oak on cut-over land. Many persons 
believe that South Jersey consists largely of "scrub oak" and "pine barrens," 
and can never grow good forests. This belief is fortunately incorrect. The 
native species naturally make good timber, and are scrubby in form only where 
severely burned or abused. In this region pine occupies nearly half the area; 
brush land (recently cut-over or severely burned) one-quarter; oak and 
hardwoods about one-quarter; cedar swamp about 4 per cent, or one twenty- 
fifth. 

Cut-Over and Burned Forest. — Nearly 70 per cent (1,400,000 acres) of 
the total forest area has been recently cut-over or so severely burned that the 
present tree growth, while potentially valuable for future forests, is now too 
small or too scattering to be merchantable. Of this area, 400,000 acres, 
three-fourths of which is in the South Jersey pine region, does not contain 
trees large enough even for cordwood, while the remaining 1,000,000 acres 
would now yield approximately 7,000,000 cords of wood, both pine and hard- 
woods, suitable only for fuel. 

Merchantable Timber. — Approximately 30 per Cent of the forest area 
(600,000 acres) now contains merchantable timber estimated at 1,640,- 
000,000 board feet of saw timber, poles, ties, piling, etc., and 5,000,000 cords 
of wood. Of this total stand, yellow pine (pitch and shortleaf) will yield 
360,000,000 board feet, cedar 100,000,000 board feet, and all hardwoods 
(together with white pine and hemlock) about 1,180,000,000 board feet. 

Rank of Species. — The various hardwood species rank in abundance about 
as follows: oak, 65 per cent; maple, 10 per cent; hickory, 5 per cent; beech, 

4 per cent; tulip poplar, 3 per cent; ash, 3 per cent; birch, 2 per cent; gum, 
2 per cent; elm, 2 per cent; other species, 4 per cent. In the same way, the 
conifers rank as follows: pine, 79 per cent; cedar (red and white), 20 per 
cent; hemlock, 1 per cent. Of the four native species of pine, pitch pine 
ranks about 80 per cent; shortleaf pine, 18 per cent; white pine, 1 per cent; 
scrub pine, 1 per cent. Ranking conifers and hardwoods together on the 
scale of 100, we get the following comparison of the relative quantities of 
each: oak, 47 per cent; pine, 22 per cent; maple, 7 per cent; cedar, 6 per 
cent; hickory, 4 per cent; beech, 3 per cent; tulip poplar, 2 per cent; ash, 
2 per cent; birch, 1.5 per cent; gum, 1.5 per cent; elm, 1.5 per cent; hemlock, 

5 per cent; other species, 2 per cent. Chestnut is not included because of its 
destruction by the blight. 

Timber Consumption. — New Jersey Consumes the equivalent of 600,- 
000,000 board feet of timber annually, half of which is sawed lumber used 
in industries and for construction, while the other half is used in rough form 
for poles, ties, piling, mine timbers, posts, cordwood, etc. The annual out- 
put of New Jersey sawmills is approximately 30,000,000 board feet, or one- 
tenth of the sawed lumber consumed, leaving nine-tenths to be imported. 
On the other hand, about two-thirds of the round and rough timber used in 
the State is produced locally. Very little New Jersey timber is exported. 

Page four , ' 1 -: 



FOMENT MAP 
OF HEW JERSEY 



Scale of m\\es 

5 10 IS 

I II 



DEPARTMENT Or 

CoMStnvATioN & OevEuoPMesT 




Mill) of \itr Jcrsi'i/'s 2,000.000 acres of Wdixlldud. 
Practically all of this area will grow good forests, and most of it is fit for no other use 
Neglectful owners and forest fires are keeping inucii of it idle and non-productive New 
Jersey now lias to import more than two-thirds of the timber used in the State but there 
IS enough true forest land here to grow all the timber needed by her citizens and' industries 



Page five 



Therefore, of the total annual consumption of timber, the equivalent of 
230,000,000 board feet (38 per cent) is produced within the State and 
370,000,000 board feet (62 per cent) is imported. At present freight rates 
it costs the people of New Jersey not less than $5,000,000 annually for freight 
alone on imported timber. 

Ti mber Growth and Future Production — New Jersey is now cutting the 

equivalent of 230,000,000 board feet 'annually from her 2,000,000 acres of 
forest land or 115 board feet per acre per year. An annual production of 
300 board feet per acre per year, which is easily possible once the forests are 
protected from fire and are put to work under forestry management, will 
yield an amount equal to all the timber now used. 

However, it must be remembered that not over 30 per cent of the wood- 
land area (600,000 acres) now contains merchantable timber, and it is this 
area that is supplying the present annual cut. At this rate, the merchantable 
timber will last less than ten years. When this is gone, there will be a period 
of several years during which sizable timber will be very scarce, and probably 
nine-tenths of all kinds used will be imported. Yet if the areas of young 
growth recuperating from cutting and fires are given proper protection and 
care, they will come back, and, under methods of regulated cutting, will pro- 
duce constantly increasing annual yields. New Jersey can eventually grow 
practically all of the timber needed for home consumption. Before this 
situation is reached a period of acute local shortage can be expected. 

Forest Values. — New Jersey's present merchantable timber resources have 
a stumpage value of about $25,000,000 — not including the value of the 
land, — although the present assessed valuation probably does not exceed one- 
quarter of this amount. In fixing this valuation, 70 per cent of the total area 
is regarded as having no actual stumpage value at present, although of course 
the young growth is the foundation of our future forests, and as such, has a 
decided value. The stumpage value of the cut now amounts to about 
$2,000,000 annually, and the market value of the sawed lumber, poles, ties, 
etc., about $10,000',000. 

In 10 years the value of the cut will probably amount to not more than 
one-fourth of this amount. Ultimately, when the forests are made fully pro- 
ductive, they should have a capitalized value of more than $200,000,000 ; 
the stumpage value of the cut 'should exceed $10,000,000 annually and the 
total market value of the raw products should exceed $50,000,000. These 
expectation values are conservative, since they are based on present prices. 



THE PUBLIC'S INTERESTS DEMAND STATE AID 

An adequate timber supply is essential to the welfare of any community 

or State ; the public's interests demand that steps be taken to assure it. The 
advantages resulting from a home grown supply of lumber and wood products 
will benefit everyone — Mr. Average Citizen and Mr. Ultimate Consumer 
as well as forest owners and timber operators. The return to productivity 
of our great area of idle, semi-waste lands will add immeasurably to the 

Page six 



public wealth. Nor should the recreational value of woodlands be overlooked. 
Desolate slashings, monotonous brush land and unsightly burned areas do not 
serve or attract people bent on pleasure, but once the mountain and lake 
regions of North Jersey and the pine tracts of the south are forested as they 
should be, our inland summer and winter playgrounds will rival in popularity 
our justly famous coast resorts. 

To bring the State's woodlands to the condition from which these benefits 
may be derived is the function and purpose of the Division of Forestry of 
the State Department of Conservation and Development. 

Th e State Foresters aid woodland owners , because most New Jersey 
forest holdings are too small to justify the employment of a forester, and 
because the practice of forestry on private lands must be encouraged for the 
benefit of the public. The Department offers the services of its foresters, 
so far as their time will permit, to all who ask for assistance. 

Expert Advice. -Advice is given by mail upon the basis of a very intimate 
knowledge of conditions in the State. Whenever the conditions and the 
owner's intent justify it, a forester will study the situation on the ground 
and make recommendations. The advice offered covers cutting, logging, 
marketing, planting, protection and general management problems. There 
is no obligation to follow the advice given, although when it is acted upon 
the Department assumes the right to inspect the property from time to time, 
and to publish the results of the work for the benefit of the public. 

The cos t to anyone receiving this help is the forester's actual field ex- 
penses. His salary is paid by the State. Public institutions and organizations 
are aided without charge. Advice by mail is always free. 

The Necessity for Action is Recognized. — To thosC who know the im- 
portance of our timber problem, it is gratifying to note that a constantly in- 
creasing number of progressive individuals and organizations not only see 
the need for "doing something," but are doing it. They realize that with the 
depletion of eastern stumpage, and with the increasing cost of transporting 
lumber from the South and West, wood product prices are mounting. This 
situation is just beginning to make itself felt. Wood-using industries are 
coming to recognize the importance and value of a permanent local timber 
supply for the future, and the benefits of having this supply near the largest 
markets, with the most accessible transportation facilities. No other State 
is so ideally located in this respect as New Jersey. 

Sportsmen understand that there can be no wild life — no fish or game — 
unless an adequate forest cover is maintained for its protection. Forest fires 
are the worst enemies of wild birds and animals. 

A large mining concern in North Jersey employs a forester to manage 
its tract of several thousand acres of forest land, from which, under regulated 
cutting, it is able to obtain a permanent supply of timber needed for its 
operations, with a surplus for profitable sale. Owners of so-called "waste 
land" see the folly of allowing the land to remain idle and unproductive 
when it might be growing timber profitably. An estate of 100,000 acres of 
South Jersey woodland, consisting largely of recently cut-over and severely 
burned forest, has employed a forester to protect the property from fire, and 

• Page seven 





Cedar swamps like this are worth money 



Who says South Jersey can't grow good 
pine/ 




A crop of 20,000 hoard feet of rood hardwood satvtogs per acre. 

New Jersey was once forested like this, and can be again. Our people now pay annually 

over $5,000,000 for freight alone on imported lumber. Properly developed, our forests 

can produce 150,000,000 worth of wood products a year — all we need. 

Page eight 



to encourage the growth of profitable timber crops by carefully controlled 
cutting. Municipal water departments controlling watersheds of many 
thousand acres in North Jersey are conserving the available water supply 
and making a profit as well by protecting the natural forests on their water- 
sheds, and by planting unprotected slopes with forest trees. Six of the thir- 
teen forest fire lookout towers now operated by the State have been furnished 
in part by woodland owners who offer this cooperation because they know 
the necessity of protecting forests from fire. Farmers realize the benefits 
of producing their own supply of lumber, poles, posts and fuel, as well as 
profitable woods work for idle help and teams during the slack season. In 
addition to the 17,000 acres of State Forests maintained by the State, several 
hundred owners of nearly 200,000 acres of New Jersey woodland have started 
the practice of forestry on their properties. They are locking the barn doors 
to prevent their horses being stolen. They will ride while others w^alk, when 
the timber shortage really hits us. 

WHAT IS FORESTRY? 

Forestry is Farming Applied to Woodlands. — Every forest should be re- 
garded as a growing crop, to be protected, encouraged, cultivated and finally 
harvested according to the best and most profitable methods. Under proper 
management an area of woodland will produce a continuous crop, maturing 
at intervals and yielding the maximum quantity and quality of products. It 
needs much the same treatment as a field of vegetables, which, after being 
thinned, weeded and otherwise encouraged to grow thriftily, are picked as 
they ripen. When trees are too crowded, the stunted individuals should be 
removed and the best left. Weed trees of inferior species interfere with the 
growth of the better trees, and should be cut out. The result of this thin- 
ning and weeding process, which in itself yields profitable returns, is a full 
stand of healthy, valuable trees. As certain individuals reach the size at 
which they can be most profitably utilized they should be cut and marketed, 
and the immature trees left to grow. 

Forestry management is especially adapted to farm woodlands and can 
be practised with profit by any capable farmer. It employs labor and teams 
in w^inter when other work is often slack ; it requires few special tools and 
little extra equipment ; it provides necessary farm lumber, posts and fuel at 
a minimum cost; it brings in ready cash from the sale of surplus products; 
it utilizes land unfit for any other purpose; it stabilizes the whole manage- 
ment of a farm. 

Forestry never appropriates agricultural soils, but makes profitable USC 

of poor land. It is economically unwise to use lands of high value for growl- 
ing timber when we have approximately one and a half million acres — steep 
hillsides, rocky slopes, non-fertile soils and swamps — that cannot be used 
profitably for any other purpose. However, present woodland should be 
maintained as such until it is needed for other uses. With at least 400,000 
acres of neglected or abandoned farm lands within the State, it is obvious 
that the present need is for more farmers and better marketing conditions 
rather than more farms. Possibly 500,000 acres of New Jersey woodland 
consist of soils suitable for agriculture if cleared. 

Page nine 




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Loijijvd Off cediir sirtniiiis irill route back in cedar unless burned. 



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Fire will keep pine timber scrubby. 




Careless lodging is wasteful, dan'jerous and unsiyldly. 
Nearly 70 per cent of New Jersey's woodlands look like this — run-down and non-productive 
from Are, neglect and abuse. To allow them to continue in this condition is not good business. 



Page ten 



Forest planting is frequently advisable, although the common idea that 
forestry begins and ends with planting trees is wrong. It is usually easier, 
cheaper, and for the present, better, to make good forests out of neglected 
and abused natural woodlands. The result will rarely be as good, silvi- 
culturally. as from a planted forest, but the crop will come quicker and it 
will cost less. In our woodlands natural reproduction is usually adequate and 
satisfactory, and costs nothing to establish. Forest planting is advised where 
land unfit for agriculture has been unwisely cleared, where the native forest 
has been completely burned, or where natural reproduction is lacking. The 
State groivs no young trees for distribution to the public, because there are 
a number of private nurserymen who furnish good stock at fair prices. The 
State Forester will send any interested person a list of available nurseries 
where planting stock or supplies can be obtained. 

Forestry Demands and Creates Good Markets . — Forestry is practical only 

when, and to the extent that, forest products are marketable at a profit. 
Forestry methods encourage the growth of the largest and most valuable 
crop ; when it matures it must be thoroughly utilized and profitably marketed 
if the operation is to be successful. 

The old law of supply and demand is the factor governing the practi- 
cability of forestry. In the past when good timber was abundant and cheap, 
a forest owner could not afford to use the same intensive methods that are 
practical now. It was cheaper to Avaste timber than to waste money to save 
it. As a result, we have our slaughtered, neglected forests. 

Today the increasing value of wood products is directly proportional to 
the diminishing supply of timber and it seems certain that prices will con- 
tinue to increase. The demand for wood is constant ; neither concrete nor 
steel can replace it for many uses. New Jersey has an abundance of cheap 
land for timber production ; a consuming population of more than ten million 
within a radius of 60 miles of the Capitol ; excellent markets within the State 
and at its borders; unexcelled steam, electric, water and improved highway 
transportation facilities. Considering these facts, and that at present more 
than two-thirds of the timber used in New Jersey is imported, and in 10 years 
probably nine-tenths or more must come from outside the State, the possi- 
bilities for forestry seem unlimited. 

Fire Protection is Absolutely Essential. — Onlv where forests are reason- 
ably safe from fire damage is the growth of timber possible and the practice 
of forestry advisable. Fortunately, the danger of fire in more or less isolated 
woodlots, especially in the hardwood region, is not so great but that owners 
can be reasonably assured of protection once they realize the damage even a 
light burning may cause by destroying soil humus and fertility, by killing 
young reproduction and damaging large trees. 

However, extensive areas of New Jersey forests still continue to suffer 
from frequent and destructive fires, especially in South Jersey, where par- 
ticularly hazardous fire conditions exist. There are still too many fires, too 
destructive fires, too great an annual fire loss. Forest fires must be stopped — 
confronted with a timber shortage, nobody longer questions that fact. The 
State Forest Fire Service must be strengthened along the lines proposed in the 

Page eleven 





Fire is the chief C(n(se of poor forests. 





Prompt detection from towers, and efficient fire fightiny are necessary for fire control. 





Railroad fire lines and clean roadsides reduce the chance of fires starting, and help in stopping 

fires set by careless smokers, campers and brush-bvrners. 

Forest fires burn over 70,000 acres of forest annually in New Jersey. The State Forest Fire 

Service can reduce this damage to a small amount if it gets proper support. How much 

longer will the public and woodland owners stand for this criminal waste and neglect? 

Page twelve 



State Firewarden's report for 1921. The increased cost of this addition will 
be negligible compared with the value of the timber and other property that 
will then be saved from destruction. 

With a public that realizes the danger and damage of forest fires, so that 
their number can be checked, and an organization that promptly detects and 
controls the fires that do start, forestry becomes practicable and its progress 
assured. 



Page thirteen 



WOODLAND MANAGEMENT 

PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 

Forestry Pays Good Profits— Few woodland owners can afford to play 
with forestry as a hobby. When considering the management of woodlands, 
the first question asked by most persons is, "What will it cost me, and what 
can I get out of it?" 

The answer is this : Forestry is by no means a get-rich-quick proposition, 
but the returns are sure and steady. Neither does forestry involve waiting 
a life time for results, as so many persons believe. Thrifty woods properly 
managed pay good profits and utilize land that would otherwise be unpro- 
ductive ; regulated cutting produces income at frequent intervals of a few 
years apart. Little capital and only small initial investments are required. 

Today the average New Jersey woodland tract is so run-down that it 
cannot be expected to yield the most profitable timber crops until its con- 
dition is improved. One or more improvement cuttings are usually necessary 
to prepare for full productivity. 

Ordinarily the cost of such improvement work is more than paid for by 
the sale of the wood removed. How large these first profits are depends upon 
the condition of the woods, and how the work is undertaken. An improve- 
ment cutting in a typical 90 acre Morris County woodlot yielded a net profit 
of $45 per acre, and only dead, dying, crowding and inferior trees were cut. 
As a result, those remaining are now growing vigorously and are rapidly in- 
creasing in value. Still more profitable cuttings will be possible from time 
to time at intervals of a few years, as these trees mature. 

A similar improvement cutting of a 20 acre tract in Burlington County 
yielded a net profit of $300 and left a far more valuable woodland because 
of the treatment. 

A Middlesex County farmer, following the advice of the State Forester, 
writes as follows: "It is a pleasure to tell you that I have nearly finished cut- 
ting and marketing the timber on my thirty acre tract. . . . It is con- 
servative to say that I will net about $35 per acre above all expenses on the 
chestnut alone (dead, dying and inferior trees), and I will have a good 
tract of young oak and other hardwoods left, worth at the present time $15 
per acre stumpage. The best offer I could get from lumbermen was $25 per 
acre for all the timber, and this would have meant leaving stump land to 
detract from the value of my farm." 

Other similar examples might be given. In every case the full benefit of 
the work will not be apparent until the final crops of timber are harvested. 
Any woodland owner who gives his woods the right sort of attention will find 
good profits for his efforts. It is assumed that an owner recognizes this fact, 
and is prepared to follow the plan of management that will bring about this 
improvement. If he is governed by any other special considerations he must 
choose the next best course to follow. 

A definite plan of work should be based upon the desires or needs of the 
owner. He should determine in advance exactly what he wants to do, and 

Page fourteen 



should know to what extent his desires can be fulfilled. Ordinarily he is 
governed chiefly by one of the following considerations: 

(a) The desire to improve the productiveness of his woods so that the 
largest and most valuable crops of timber can be grown in the 
shortest time. 

(b) The need for certain products for immediate sale or use. 

(c) The necessity for cutting everything of value to realize the greatest 
immediate profit. 

Success in obtaining either of these last two results, without sacrificing too 
much the welfare and future productivity of the stand, depends upon the 
initial condition of the woods and the skill with which the work is under- 
taken. The owner's final plan of action must in many cases be a compromise 
of what he would like to do and what seems most advisable. 

What Are Productive Woodlands? — What is the condition toward 
which a forest owner should work? Woodlands are 100 per cent productive 
when all the land is constantly supporting a full stand of the most thrifty, 
well-formed, fastest growing trees of the most valuable species adapted to 
conditions of soil and climate. 

Select the Trees to Leave . — Ordinarily the best way to go about an im- 
provement cutting is first to decide upon the best trees to be saved for further 
growth and then mark the rest for cutting. This procedure should be fol- 
lowed wherever the owner's chief intent is to improve his woods. If some 
specific products are required it is of course necessary to cut the trees that 
will provide them, leaving the best of the remaining trees. 

No one should attempt to carry out the following instructions unless he 
is thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of the trees in his woods. 
Helpful information of this kind is given on pages 61 to 77. 

Be guided by the following considerations in selecting trees to cut and 
to leave : 

LEAVE A FULL STAND 

Leave a full stand of trees SO that the land will be fully occupied, and 
will be growing the largest crop possible. What comprises a "full stand" 
of trees depends upon the species and their light requirements, their age and 
size, and soil conditions. 

Competition for Light. — The leaves of trees require sunlight to perform 
their life functions, one of the most important of which is to make plant food 
available for the tree's growth. Even in rich soil a tree which is getting 
insufficient light will be stunted or even killed. 

Certain species which tolerate considerable shade, such as white cedar, 
hemlock, spruce, beech and maple, can stand more crowding without injury 
than can such intolerant species as pine, tulip poplar and white oak. Also 
any species growing under favorable conditions is more tolerant of shade than 
when growing among imsuitable surroundings. Most species are more 
tolerant of shade in youth than later on in life. 

A tree's crown (limbs and foliage) develops according to the light it re- 
ceives. Overhead shade is what kills of¥ and prunes the lower limbs of a 

Page fifteen 



tree. A tree grown in the open develops a short, stocky trunk and a spreading 
crown with an abundance of large limbs and is of little value for lumber. 
On the other hand, a tree in crowded woods is forced, by competition with 
its companions, to grow tall as rapidly as possible in an effort to get from 
above the light needed for its development. Such a tree grows tall, straight 
and free from lower branches, — the kind most desirable for lumber or other 
products. 

Therefore, young trees should grow closely until they have developed 
good height and form. During this struggle some individuals will be stunted 
and suppressed. To increase the rapidity of diameter growth of the best 
trees, when they have reached the desired height and form, crowding should 
be relieved by removing the weaklings and less desirable trees. In other 
words, a full stand means crowded young trees, but a more open stand as the 
trees mature. 

Root competition for food and moisture also influences the growth of 
crowded trees, but for all practical purposes it is safe to follow the general 
rule that when a tree is getting all the light it needs, there will be no com- 
petitor close enough to afford serious root competition. 

How to Determine a Full Stand. — To determine whether or not a tract 
of timber is too crowded, too open, or of just the right density, consider the 
species, the age of the trees and the condition of the crowns. Remember 
that tolerant species can stand the most crowding and that young trees should 
always be more or less crowded until they have reached their desired form. 

In an over-crowded woods the crowns interlace making a dense, over- 
head shade; the crowns are small and the trees themselves are rather spindly, 
with many of them suppressed and even dead. If the stand is too open there 
will be considerable sunlight on the ground, and the trees will have large 
spreading crowns with the live limbs extending well down the trunks. The 
trees themselves will usually be short and stocky. 

How to Get a Full Stand . — When a tract of timber has reached the size 
and age where it is too crowded for good development, the best young trees 
should be retained for further growth and the crowding trees cut. What 
these best trees are is explained in the following paragraphs. If the stand is 
too open, before or after cutting, it is necessary to provide for more trees in 
the openings, by natural seeding when possible, by sprout reproduction from 
stumps of trees cut, or by planting. 

FAVOR THRIFTY, VIGOROUS TREES 

Leave Thrifty, Vigorous Trees. — When selecting trees for further 
growth, leave only those that are thrifty and full of vigor. The idea of 
forestry is to get a succession of the largest and best crops in the quickest 
time; to accomplish this the trees must be healthy, of good form, fast-grow- 
ing and free from disease or injury. 

Cut dead, dying or weakened trees , and Utilize them if they are mer- 
chantable, for if left in the woods they constitute a fire menace, a breeding 

Par/e sixteen 



place for destructive insects and fungus diseases, and soon become worthless. 
Healthy woods usually do not suffer from attacks of pests. 

Cut crooked, misformed and injured trees, tO make room for better 

trees that can grow into more valuable products. In productive woods there 
is no room for inferior individuals. Badly suppressed trees, which have been 
overtopped, crowded and weakened by larger and more vigorous neighbors 
usually grow very slowly and readily succumb to disease or insect attacks, 
although some species may recover and make satisfactory growth if the crowd- 
ing is relieved in time. 

Cut Mature and Over-mature Trees. — They have no place in productive 

woods, because when a tree has reached the age of maturit}-^ it no longer 
produces wood vigorously. Unless market conditions make it appear likely 
that the future value of such trees will be considerably greater within a few 
years, they should be cut at once. Over-mature trees deteriorate rapidly the 
longer they are allowed to stand. Moreover, these larger trees, particularly 
those with spreading crowns, use too much space, and crowd out younger trees 
that might otherwise be making good growth. One hundred dollars at 10 
per cent interest yields more income than two hundred dollars at 3 per cent ; 
the same comparison applies to the growth of trees. 

BEST SPECIES 

Favor the Most Valuable Species. — The trees left Standing to form pro- 
ductive woods should not only be thrifty and properly spaced, but they should 
also consist of the best species. Ordinarily the best species are those which 
yield the most valuable products. Oak, hickory, ash and tulip poplar are 
more valuable than birch, beech and maple, which in turn are more valuable 
than sassafras, ironwood and aspen, for most purposes. However, a thrifty, 
well-formed beech or birch is better to favor than a weakened, injured oak 
or hickory. 

Consider the products desired in order to determine the relative value 
of the various species. For instance, if a farmer wants only cordwood, birch, 
beech and hard maple are as good as oak or hickory and better than tulip 
poplar or elm. For veneer basket logs, red gum and tulip poplar are better 
than oak, hickory or ash, and so on. 

Fortunately most kinds of wood will soon be in such demand that the 
owner who needs no particular products, but desires to grow those that can 
be most readily sold at a profit, need only consider what species are best 
suited to his soils. Whatever kinds he can grow best will certainly be 
marketable. 

Resistance to Enemies. — The best species to favor are those that can best 
resist enemies, or other unfavorable conditions likely to be encountered. Thus 
chestnut is a valuable species, yet it has been necessary to eliminate it entirely 
from consideration because of the blight which destroys it. There are few 
more valuable trees than white pine, but it is commonly injured by the weevil, 
and there is also constant danger of the blister rust disease. Therefore red 
pine, not as susceptible to injury from these or other pests, is recommended for 

Page seventeen 



planting as a substitute for white pine. Elms are well adapted to wet sites 
and produce valuable wood for many purposes, but shallow-rooted trees like 
elm are likely to be wind-thrown if the stand is opened too much. No species 
resists light burnings as well as pitch pine, so that it is well fitted to survive 
in regions where fires are frequent. For detailed information regarding the 
characteristics, habits and uses of trees, see pages 61 to 68. 

The influence of site also determines what are the best species to favor. 
The best trees must not only be those most valuable for the purpose or pro- 
ducts desired, but they must also be well adapted to conditions of soil, mois- 
ture, exposure and climate. For example, tulip poplar is a better tree for 
many purposes than rock oak or pitch pine. It grows faster^ makes better 
formed and larger trees, and its wood has a higher market value. But tulip 
poplar demands a fairly fertile, moist but well-drained soil. On a dry, rocky 
slope, or on sands of low fertility, pitch pine is the better tree to favor, for 
it will make fair growth where tulip poplar would be barely able to survive. 
For the same reason rock oak should be favored on dry, rocky slopes, and pin 
oak on excessively moist sites. Loblolly pine seems to be an excellent species 
well adapted to the South Jersey sands (when planted) but it is not at all 
suited to the climate of North Jersey. Red gum is found naturally only in 
Central and South Jersey, and hard maple only in North Jersey; neither 
species should be favored except within its natural range. 

SOILS ADAPTED TO VARIOUS SPECIES 

Fertile, Well Drained Soils . — Almost every tree species prefers a deep, 
fertile, moist but well drained soil for its fastest growth and best develop- 
ment, although hardwoods usually demand better soils than conifers. Certain 
species require good soils, and grow poorly or not at all on inferior sites. 
Black walnut is probably the most exacting of our native trees, followed by 
tulip poplar, white ash, shagbark hickory, basswood, sugar maple and white 
oak, all valuable species. Fortunately much of our hardwood region con- 
tains good soils, either too steep, too rocky or too wet for agriculture, where 
these species can be favored. 

Wet, Swampy Land. — Southern white cedar, found in the fresh water 
swamps of the South Jersey Pine region, is a good example of a tree thriving 
on soils constantly wet and often overflowed for most of the year. In the 
swamps of the hardwood region are found elm, black ash, black gum and 
red maple with the comparatively rare conifers, tamarack and black spruce. 
Hemlock, swamp white oak, white ash, basswood, pin oak, beech, birch and 
sugar maple also endure considerable moisture if it is not stagnant. Red 
gum is common on wet lands in the southern half of the hardwood region. 
Cottonwood and balsam fir are adapted to planting on wet soils. 

Dry, Rocky Uplands. — Few species make good growth on the more or 
less dry, rocky uplands and ridges of North Jersey, although those best 
adapted to such situations are chestnut oak, pitch pine, red cedar and gray 
birch. Scotch pine is a suitable species for planting on such situations. 

South Jersey Sands. — The species best adapted to the poorest South Jersey 

Page eighteen 



sands is pitch pine, while shortleaf pine makes good growth on the better 
situations. The various oaks, especially chestnut oak, red oak, black oak 
and white oak do fairly well on the best soils, although the sands are not 
naturally hardwood soils. Any of our pines seem adapted to planting in this 
region, although the best species to use are probably shortleaf, loblolly and 
Scotch pine. 

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF FORESTRY 

Various Types of Woods Require Different Treatment. — As WOodlands 

vary according to species, age and condition, so they require different methods 
of management to make and keep them productive. The following advice 
for various tjpes of New Jersey woodland will help an owner to understand 
the treatment needed by his woods. 

YOUNG, EVEN-AGED MIXED HARDWOODS 

Young hardwood forests, under 40 years of age, comprise one of the most 
common classes of woodland in the State. Such stands of young "second 
growth" are found where all the original timber was cut clear in one oper- 
ation, where land cleared for agriculture and then abandoned has reverted 
to forest growth, or where a severe fire entirely killed the former forest. 
Nature has restocked these areas from seed already on the ground or dis- 
tributed from nearby seed trees, or by sprouts from the stumps of the original 
trees. Usually the woods are a mixture of sprouts and seedlings of many 
species, some valuable and some of inferior quality. 

Such stands are commonly very dense and crowded, a desirable condition 
until the trees have been forced to good height and form. When about 20 
years old, and usually before the age of 30 is reached, crowding begins to do 
more harm than good by seriously checking diameter growth (of the trunks) 
of even the leaders or do?ninant trees. If nothing is done to relieve this 
situation, the larger trees will gradually \vm out over the others, and w^ill 
ultimately produce a fair stand of timber. But this process of Nature is very 
slow, for wood growth is seriously retarded in the struggle for supremacy; 
also it is very wasteful, for many trees are suppressed and die. 

Thinning. — It is usually advisable to thiii young stands, when badly 
crowded, at about 20 to 25 years of age. Less crowded woods can be allowed 
to remain unthinned longer — possibly until 40 years old. The trees to be 
removed are the crowded and suppressed trees of the less valuable species, 
leaving the dominant trees of the better species for further growth. The 
products of this cutting will be chiefly cordwood, fence posts, small poles, 
mine timbers, ties, boat fenders, etc. Ordinarily the profits of such a thin- 
ning will not be great, but will usually more than pay for the cost of the 
work. The real benefit, proven by experience, is that the trees relieved by 
thinning produce w^ood from five to ten times as fast as crowded trees 
unthinned. 

Examples of thinning will demonstrate the value of this work: 

(a) A 20 year old stand of various species of oak on the sandy soils of 

Page nineteen 



AN AVERAGE, CROWDED 25 YEAR OLD STAND OF MlXEiD MARDWOODS 




ORIGINAL CONDITION THINNING INDICATED 

The average 25 year old crowded stand contains about 750 trees per acre, 
30 to 40 feet tall, 2 to 8 incites in diameter, averaging 4 inches in diameter, 
with a total volume of about 15 cords of wood 



THE SAME CROWDED 25 YEAR, OLD STAND 




UNTHINNED 
750 trees per acre, 30 to 44) feet tall-, 
maximum diameter, 6"; average 4", 
Volume , 15 cords per acre. 



I fill f 




THINNED 
450 trees per acre, 30 to 40 feet tall, 
maximum diameter, 6",- average 5" 
Volume left, 10 io 12 cords per acre . 



THE SAME: W00D5 AT 50 YEARS OF AGE 




IF NEGLECTED 

150 frees killed bij crowding, 600 treei 
per acre living, 40 to 60 feet tall; the 
maximum diameter, 14"; average 5" 
Volume 18 to 20 cords per acre 



% 



IF IMPROVED 
450 trees per acre, 50 to 60 feet fall, maximum 
diameter, IB", average, 10" Volume 35 to 45 cords 
per acre. THE 2no IMPROVEMENT CUTTING 
indicated here would leave 200 '" 300 frees 
per acre with a volume of 30 to 35 cords 



THE. FVNAL STAND READY FOR CUTTING AT 75 YEARS OF AGE 




rKtJ 



IF NEGLECTED 
500 trees per acre' living , SO to 75 feet 
tall , maximum diameter, 13", average , 8". 
Volume 25 ^ 3S cords- per acre, or lo thousand 
board feet of saw- logs and 15 cords of wood. 




IF IMPROVED 
250 trees per acre, 60 to 75 feet tall, maximum 
diameter, 24" average, IS" Volume 60 *o 75 cords 
or 30 thousand board feet of saw-logs and 8 cord! 
of wood. Also reproduction for another stand 



Diagrams showing the results of thinnings and improvement cuttings in hardwoods. 
Page twenty 



liurlington County, containing 731 trees per acre from 2 to 5 inches in 
diameter, was thinned. A similar tract of crowded timber adjoining was left 
in its natural condition as a check. From the first acre 268 suppressed trees 
were removed, leaving 463 trees. In seven years the trees left on the thinned 
acre increased in volume from 5.5 cords to 12.3 cords, or practically 1 cord 
per acre per year. The unthinned acre increased in the same time from 9.5 
cords to 10.6 cords, or a growth of only 1.1 cords in 7 years. In other words, 
the thinning resulted in increased growth nearly 10 times as great as that on 
the unthinned plot. 

The practical application of this example is as follows: In many parts 
of the State, particularly in South Jersey, it is a common practise to cut off 
entire stands of young hardwoods about every 15 or 20 years for cordwood. 
This practise is unwise and wasteful, because such short rotations do not 
give the trees time enough to make good growth. A tree thoroughly estab- 
lished, which has passed the spindly youthful stage but is not yet mature, 
with its thrifty crown of foliage, its healthy well formed trunk, its well estab- 
lished, spreading root system, will add to its volume each jear many times 
as much wood as several young trees occupying the same space and struggling 
to establish themselves. 

For example, take an average stand of South Jersey oaks. After cutting, 
reproduction by sprouts will follow. In 15 years there will be from 4 to 5 
cords of wood per acre, in 20 years from 6 to 10 cords. Two clear cuttings, 
the first at 20 years and the second at 40 years, would yield a total of 16 
cords of wood in 40 years. In 45 years three clear cuttings 15 years apart 
would yield altogether about 15 cords. 

Under proper forestry methods the stand would be thinned instead of 
clear-cut, at 20 years. The thinning would remove about 2 or 3 cords per 
acre, and would leave from 5 to 8 cords standing for further growth. At 
40 years of age this stand would contain from 25 to 30 cords of wood, or 
double the amount which would have been obtained from the two or three 
clear cuttings. Moreover many of the trees would be of a size and quality 
suitable for products more valuable than cordwood. A longer period of 
growth would make a contrast of yield and profits even more striking. At 
any time the improved woods would have a sale value much greater than 
that of the slashings, resulting from clear cutting of immature growth. 

(b) In the western part of Essex County an acre of 25-year old hard- 
woods — oak, maple, hickory, beech and ash, contained 870 trees from 2 to 
8 inches in diameter, with a volume of 17.8 cords. Investigations showed 
that growth had been fairly rapid for the first 20 years, but had been badly 
retarded by excessive crowding in the last five years. Adjoining was an acre 
of crowded trees 50 years old, grown under conditions similar in every re- 
spect. Here there were 620 trees per acre from 2 to 10 inches in diameter 
with a total volume of 20.4 cords. Study of growth rings on the stumps 
showed that these trees had been badly crowded and had made little growth 
during the last 30 years. Many of the suppressed trees had been killed by 
crowding, which accounts for the fact that the 50 year old woods contained 
240 live trees per acre less than the 25 year old tract. The important point 
to note is that under similar conditions one acre produced 17.8 cords of 

Page twenty-one 



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wood in 25 3'ears, while tlie other produced only 20.4 cords in 50 years. 
Had the 50 year old stand been thinned at 25 years of age, it would un- 
doubtedly have produced at least 40 cords in 50 years, or double its actual 
yield. These figures are given in terms of cords for the sake of comparison. 
IVIany of the trees would have been fit for sawlogs, poles, piling, ties and 
similar products. 

(c) On page 22 the records of actual thinnings and improvement cut- 
tings made in different parts of the State give a good idea of the number of 
trees in average crowded stands of hardwoods, the number of trees properly 
removed, and the volume of wood standing and cut. 

MIDDLE-AGED MIXED HARDWOODS 

After a thinning like that described for crowded young hardwoods, the 
trees should grow vigorously and at an increased rate of growth for some 
time. Later, usually after 10 to 25 years, the stand will again become 
crowded enough to retard growth. Most of the trees will be of fairly uni- 
form size, since they were largely dominant trees when relieved of crowding 
by the initial thinning. There will be some injured trees, others suffering 
from crowding, and usually some trees of inferior species which had to be 
left at the time of the first thinning. 

Middle-aged mixed hardwood stands are also found as the result of 
natural growth that has never been thinned. In this case the trees are less 
uniform in size, they are more crowded, many of them are dead, dying, 
weakened or suppressed, and the average size of the trees is considerably 
smaller than in the case of a stand previously thinned. There is less wood 
per acre and its quality is poorer. 

If an owner can afford to hold a part of such timber still longer it will 
ordinarily pay him to do so. At this size and age it is still growing thriftily, 
and is rapidly becoming better in quality. Other things being equal, one 
large tree or log is worth more than three smaller ones of the same total 
volume. Furthermore, we are now just beginning to feel the pinch of the 
timber shortage, and the next five or ten years will undoubtedly see a very 
considerable increase in the stumpage value of timber as well as in the value 
of manufactured lumber and wood products. Fortunate indeed is the person 
who owns and can hold a tract of thrifty timber approaching maturity. 

Treatment Needed. — If it is possible to retain a portion of such timber 
for further growth, an improvement cutting should' be made similar in 
method to that described for a young stand. Crowding should be relieved 
by removing the inferior and less thrifty individuals of the poorer species, 
retaining only the best trees of the most desirable species. Such a stand can 
be opened up more than in a thinning of younger timber because the trees 
will have more nearly reached their final height and form. Increased diam- 
eter growth is now wanted and each tree should have more light than was 
needed earlier in life. 

Results of Improvement Cutting. — At the time such an improvement 
cutting is made, there will ordinarily be from 300 to 600 trees per acre, rang- 
ing in diameter up to 16 inches and with a total volume of from 25 to 50 

Page twenty-three 




A typical stand of young hardwoods too crowded for further good growth. 




The same iroods after an improvement cutting which removed the crowding and inferior 

trees and left the Itest to grow. 
Such a cutting yields a profit over and aliove the cost of the work, but the chief benefit 
is the larger, better, more valuable and faster-growing crop of timber that will follow. 

Page twenty-four 



cords per acre. The measure of cords is used again for the sake of compari- 
son, although cordwood will be only a portion of the products removed. 
There will be small saw logs, trees fit for piling, poles, ties, mine timbers, 
dimension stock, cooperage stock, basket logs, fence posts, etc. Limbs, tops 
and small and inferior trees can be turned into cordwood. 

This cutting should yield a considerable profit. For instance, a wood- 
land owner in Morris County made a net profit of $3,842 in cutting 
over 90 acres in this manner, and left a stand of timber that is rapidly 
increasing in size, quantity, quality and value. His profits from the next 
cutting should be considerably greater. On one of the State Forests in 
Burlington County a similar cutting in a 40-year old stand of 20 acres 
yielded a net profit of $300, removed only the equivalent of 13 cords per 
acre, and left 15 cords per acre which have been increasing for the last 10 
years at the rate of 1 cord or 500 board feet, per acre per year. Moreover, 
this cutting was made at a time when timber prices were comparativly low. 
The next cutting, which can be made when the stand is 60 years of age, 
should yield 35 cords or 18,000 board feet per acre, worth at least $300 per 
acre stumpage at present prices, but with the prospective increase in timber 
values, it will probably be worth much more 10 years from now. 

Moreover, it should be pointed out in this connection that the owner who 
cuts and markets his own timber will get an additional profit from the oper- 
ation, usually equal at least to that realized from a sale of stumpage. In 
other words, if an acre of timber is worth $200 as it stands, the same trees 
can usually be sold for more than twice this amount if cut into logs and 
delivered to a mill or manufacturing plant. The actual cost of the work 
accounts for only a part of the difference in price. Since most timber owners 
can handle this work themselves it is entirely fair to include these marketing 
profits when considering the income from forestry. A farmer doesn't esti- 
mate his profits on a crop still in the ground, — he figures what it is worth 
harvested and ready for sale. 

Reproduction Cutting. — Frequently an improvement cutting in middle- 
aged hardwoods will be in the nature of a reproductio7i cutting; that is, its 
purpose will be not only to increase the growth of the trees retained, but 
also to start young trees which will perpetuate the stand when the time 
finally comes to cut the matured timber. As trees are removed openings are 
made where new seedlings can become established, and sprouts will start 
from the stumps of the trees cut. If the stand was previously thinned while 
young, there may already be a few scattered seedlings and sprouts established, 
the best of which should now be saved. In this way a new crop of young 
trees will be started while the final crop is still maturing. 

Sprout and Seedling Reproduction. — Seedlings grow from seeds scattered 
by the parent tree, while sprouts grow from buds formed on the stumps or 
roots of trees. Most hardwoods sprout, some species more readily than 
others. Successive generations of sprouts from the same stump usually be- 
come less thrifty. Mature trees sprout less vigorously than young trees. It 
is common to find sprouts growing from the base of a dying tree — Nature's 
last effort to enable the tree to perpetuate itself. 

Page ftventij-five 



Young sprouts grow more rapidly for a time than seedlings, for the 
sprouts have the old roots of the parent tree to draw upon for food and 
moisture. Sooner or later the old stump dies and decays, and if the sprout 
has no root system of its own, it also suffers. Observations have shown that 
sprouts usually grow to a size merchantable for ties or poles (12-16 inches in 
diameter) faster than seedlings and then slow up, deteriorate, or even die. 
Seedlings usually start more slowly, but gradually overtake and pass the 
sprouts in middle age, and eventually make larger mature trees. 

A stump usually sends up a number of sprouts — from two or three to a 
dozen or more. If left to nature a few of these will crowd out the others, 
and become dominant ; the rest will die off. There comes a time when these 
several sprouts are such a drain on the old root system that they all slow up 
in growth. Before this time is reached, all but one or two of the best sprouts 
from each stump should be cut. This work forms an important part of im- 
provement cuttings. 

Control of Sprouting. — The most productive hardwood stands are formed 
from both sprouts and seedlings, for this combination will insure the largest 
production of wood during early life. When the thinning is made, the per- 
centage of sprout trees in the stand can be reduced in favor of the best seed- 
lings. In the next cutting, if the sprouts have reached their best develop- 
ment, they can be eliminated entirely. If quick rotations of small sized trees 
are desired, sprouts can be favored. 

Sprouting can be encouraged or not as desired by the time and method of 
cutting. Low, clean stumps mean better sprouts, for they will start close 
to the ground and soon establish themselves. They will then be less affected 
when the parent stump decays than would be the case if they started 
higher up. 

If trees are cut during the dormant period of growth- — late fall, winter 
or early spring — sprouts will start with the spring growth and will have a 
whole season to become hardened against the rigors of the coming winter. 
If cutting is done in middle or late summer the sprouting will not be so 
vigorous, and many sprouts will not be mature enough to withstand winter 
weather and will die. By the following spring the stump will be able to 
sprout only feebly, if at all. It is sometimes feasible to discourage sprouts by 
cutting them off as they appear. Usually only two or three cuttings are nec- 
essary, since the stump soon loses its vitality with this treatment. 

Control of Seeding. — It is also possible to encourage seedling growth by 
opening up the stand with a cutting just before a seed crop. Most trees ripen 
their seed in the fall; — exceptions are elm, red birch, red maple, Cottonwood, 
aspen and willow, which ripen seed early in the summer. Good seed crops 
usually do not occur every year but periodically. Most species produce ma- 
ture seed in one year ; some, such as the black oaks and pines, require two years 
to ripen seed. Stirring up the ground and exposing mineral soil by logging 
usually aids the seeds that fall to become established. 

MATURE MIXED HARDWOODS 

After one or more thinnings or improvement cuttings, the final mature 
stand will result. There are also found scattered throughout the State, 

Page twenty-six 



mostly in farmers' woodlots, mature stands as the result of the gradual 
domination of the most vigorous trees in tracts of woods that have received no 
particular care. In these natural stands the number of large trees, their 
average size, the quantity and value of the timber will all be less than in 
the case of tracts that have reached maturity after a succession of improve- 
ment cuttings. See diagram, page 20. 

Maturity of Growth. — \ tree is mature in growth when it has reached 
its best development in size and quality. The age or size at which a tree 
matures depends upon the species, the site and other conditions of growth. 
Needless to say, it is advisable to cut mature trees and start others growing 
as soon as possible for growth practically stops with maturity. Growth of 
average hardwoods in the region of New Jersey begins to slow up when the 
trees are from 18 to 24 inches in diameter and from 75 to 125 years old. In 
a virgin forest, where trees of all sizes occur up to and including mature 
trees, wood production is practically at a standstill, for death and decay 
balance new growth. 

Merchantable Maturity is the size at which the tree can and should be 
marketed for a certain product. An oak tree 14 inches in diameter would 
be merchantably mature for railroad ties, while one 16 to 20 inches in dia- 
meter would be merchantably mature for piling. Whether or not a tree 
of tie-size should be marketed for ties, or held until piling or saw-log size, 
depends upon the needs of the owner^ market conditions and the condition 
of the tree. In the present and coming period of rising timber values, it is 
felt that an owner will make no mistake by holding timber that is growing 
thriftily. 

Treatment of Mature Stands. — If the mature Stand of large trees is suf- 
ficiently open so that seedling reproduction has already come in, the best plan 
is to cut all merchantable timber. When freed from the overhead shade of 
the larger trees, the established seedlings supplemented by , sprouts from 
stumps of the trees cut, will form another stand, which in 20 to 30 years 
will be dense and crowded and will then be ready for the preliminary thin- 
ning, described on page 19. So the crops grow in a continuous rotation. The 
land is never idle; a crop is always growing at maximum speed. 

If there is no reproduction on the ground when the time comes for cutting 
the mature crop, new trees must be established in some way. Ordinarily, if 
the stand is opened up by the removal of two-thirds or three-quarters of the 
mature trees, those remaining will seed up the area within a few years, after 
which they can be removed. Seed trees left should be of the species desired 
for the coming crop and should have fairly large crowns so as to produce 
seeds abundantly. When a stand of large trees is opened up there is always 
danger of windthrow, especially among shallow rooted species. Trees on 
wet sites are most liable to this damage for their roots are near the surface. 

After harvesting the mature crop, it is sometimes necessary to establish 
new growth by forest planting, where suitable reproduction is not already on 
the ground, where a change in species is desired, or where it seems advisable 
not to delay for natural reproduction. Where some reproduction is present 
but not enough to establish a full stand, it can be supplemented by planting. 
(See chapter on forest planting, pages 45 to 60). 

Page twentij-seven 



CULLED HARDWOODS 

A large portion of New Jersey's hardwood forests have been partly cut- 
over again and again ; each time the best trees have been removed, until today 
there remains what is known as a culled forest. 

This culling operation started years ago, in the mature virgin forest. In 
those days lumber was cheap and abundant, so that it was profitable to cut 
only the most valuable trees. Later on, as timber became scarcer and prices 
rose, it became profitable to cut trees that had been previously left. On most 
areas within the last 10 to 20 years another heavy cutting has been made, 
and not only have trees of saw-log size been taken, but also those fit for poles, 
piling and ties. Each successive cutting has removed the best trees and left 
the poorest. The present stand contains those that were crooked, deformed 
or partly decayed. There are many dead and dying trees still standing. Each 
cutting has opened up the stand enough for some new growth to start from 
seeds or sprouts, so that with the scattering, inferior old trees are mixed 
young trees of all ages, from seedlings and saplings to pole size. This is a 
typical stand of culled hardwoods. 

Improvement Cuttings in Culled Hard-woods. — Obviously SUch a forest 

needs an improvement cutting, if it is to be made productive. Old mature, 
large-crowned trees should come out, to make room for thrifty ones. Many 
of these large trees will be fit only for cordwood ; others can be used in part 
for short sawlogs, split posts, ties, etc. All dead, dying, deformed and un- 
healthy trees should be cut. In spots there will be thick stands of crowded 
young growth that should be thinned. Always keep in mind that the trees 
to be left should form as nearly as possible a full stand of vigorous trees of 
the best species adapted to the conditions. Frequently there will be a number 
of trees from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, which were not quite ready at the 
last cutting for poles, piling, ties or sawlogs, as well as an understory of 
smaller trees. Enough of the best trees of all sizes should be kept to fully 
occupy the ground. Later, when a sufficient number of the larger trees have 
become merchantable, they should be harvested, and those immature left to 
grow. It is just like picking ripe vegetables and leaving the green to ripen. 
This process can be kept up rotation after rotation, crop after crop, until by 
the constant selection of the best trees, the woodland is made fully produc- 
tive. Usually after a cutting or two a fairly even-aged stand will have been 
secured, after which management should be along the lines previously recom- 
mended for young, middle aged and mature hardwoods. 

PINE FORESTS 

Pine requires treatment somewhat different from that of hardwoods, be- 
cause it does not produce good trees from sprouts, does not tolerate as dense, 
crowded stands, and requires more light and space for successful seedling 
reproduction. These characteristics must always be kept in mind ; otherwise 
the same principles governing the handling of hardwoods apply to the man- 
agement of the pine forests which extend over large areas of the South Jersey 
sands, or of planted pine forests. Keep a full stand of healthy, thrifty trees 
growing vigorously, and cut when mature in such a way that the stand will 

Page twenty-eight 




(rrowth of young pine checked by crowding. 




The same woods after a cutting which liberated the thriftier trees and profitably salvaged 

those that were weakened and dying. 
While some of tlie characteristics and habits of grrowth of pine differ from those of hard- 
woods, tlie same principles of proper treatment apply. 

Page twenty-nine 



perpetuate itself. Where crowding is observed, growth of the best, dominant 
trees should be encouraged by thinning out the inferior, weakened and sup- 
pressed trees. As a rule, fairly open stands of pine do not need much atten- 
tion, except fire protection, until the crop matures. 

Probably the most profitable management of pine forests is to thin 
crowded stands at from 25 to 30 years of age and clear-cut all the remaining 
trees at from 40 to 60 years. The thinning will yield cordwood, charcoal 
wood, dunnage wood, pulpwood and possibly box boards, while the final cut- 
ting will yield logs fit for box boards and lumber. 

Pitch pine and shortleaf (two-needle) pine are the two commonest spe- 
cies in South Jersey. The latter usually grows straighter and its wood is of 
better quality for lunber, but pitch pine is better adapted to the poorer soils. 
Where both species are found together, shortleaf pine should be favored. 

Reproduction of Pine . — Demanding abundant sunlight, pine seedlings 
will not start well under shade. Therefore, if there is not already sufficient 
reproduction on the ground when a mature stand of pine is cut, seed-trees 
should be left to restock the area. There are two ways to do this. A por- 
tion of the mature trees — say one-quarter of the total stand, widely spaced 
with ample openings between — can be left until the openings have been re- 
seeded and then removed by a second cutting. Sometimes it is possible to 
leave a scattering stand of trees not yet fully mature, to re-seed the area. If 
this does not seem advisable, a few (5 to 10) seed trees per acre can be left 
permanently to guarantee re-seeding. Pine seeds, borne beneath the scales 
of the cones, are winged so that they are scattered by the wind several hun- 
dred feet from the parent tree. Distribution is usually best in the direction 
toward which the prevailing winds blow. Where seed trees are to be left 
permanently they must be wind firm, with sufficient crown to produce 
abundant seed, and of the least value for lumber so that their loss from the 
previous cutting will be least felt. It is sometimes feasible to salvage them 
after seeding has been accomplished, althoueh if left permanently they guar- 
antee reproduction if a forest fire should kill the young trees already estab- 
lished. If this happens, and no seed trees are left, planting must be resorted to. 

Pine Sprouts. — Unlike most conifers, the pines of South Jersev sprout like 
hardwoods, but the sprouts never make sizable, thrifty trees. They do be- 
come mature enough to produce seed, and this feature may aid in the re- 
foresting of large areas of land in South Jersey where fires have killed all 
seedling growth and all seed trees of pine. Possibly seed from the sprouts 
of the fire-killed pine will eventually restock these areas, although it is a 
question still being studied, whether seed from pine sprouts will produce 
good pine timber. Perhaps, if the answer is found to be negative, it will 
partly explain the reason for so much "scrubby" pine in South Jersey. 

Pine is a Paying Crop for South Jersey. — It is a COmmon, although in- 
correct belief, that the South Jersey sands cannot produce good timber and 
that the pine is always scrubby. Where scrubby timber exists, it is the result 
of repeated forest fires, which injure or kill growing trees, and which rob 
the soil of fertility by destroying the humus or decayed leaf litter. Stop fires 
and South Jersey will grow good pine timber. 

Page thirty 



There is, and probably always will be, a constant demand for box boards 
by the fruit, berry and vegetable growers, as well as by the manufacturing 
industries of the State. Pine is well suited for this product and since com- 
paratively small sized logs can be used, the crops can be harvested at an early 
age. Such short rotations mean quick profits and the greatest possible pro- 
duction. 

Yields from Pine. — An excellent stand of 60 year old shortleaf pine ob- 
served in Ocean County contained 480 trees per acre from 6 to 14 inches 
in diameter, which would yield about 18 thousand board feet of sawlogs. 
As the tract had never been thinned, the trees were rather crowded and 
spindly, with long clear trunks. If the tract had been thinned at about 25 
or 30 years of age, there would have been left standing from 250 to 300 
trees per acre, which at 60 years would have been from 8 to 20 inches in 
diameter, with a total yield of at least 25 thousand board feet. 

In Burlington County a tract of cleared land was abandoned 35 years 
ago, and seeded up naturally to pine from the surrounding woods. As a 
result there is now an excellent stand of shortleaf and pitch pine, with 450 
trees per acre ranging in diameter from 4 to 12 inches, with a total volume of 
13 thousand board feet, or 26 cords per acre. Growth was very rapid for the 
first 25 years, but has been much retarded by crowding for the last 10 years. 
To relieve this, 175 trees per acre yielding 6 cords of w'ood were cut, and 
275 trees (20 cords per acre) were left standing. As a result, the stimulated 
growth should yield at least 20 thousand feet of sawlogs per acre when the 
stand is cut at 50 years of age. Without the thinning the yield w^ould not 
have been over 15 thousand board feet at 50 years. 

These tracts of pine are better than the average, for they have been pro- 
tected from fire. An average, rather open 50 year old pine stand measured 
in Burlington County contained 150 trees per acre from 6 to 15 inches in 
diameter, with a volume of 6 thousand board feet. This tract was not fully 
stocked and growth had been retarded by forest fires, which were not severe 
enough to kill the trees. The contrast between this tract and those first 
described affords a most convincing argument for forestry. 

PINE AND HARDWOODS 

\Vhere pine and hardwoods are found together, the species most desired 
or best suited to growing conditions should be favored. Pine ordinarily 
makes better growth than hardwoods on poor, dry soils and should be favored 
on such sites. For this reason pitch pine commonly dominates hardwoods 
on the dry rocky ridges of North Jersey and on the poorer of the South 
Jersey sands. 

How t o Favor the Best Species. — When a Stand of hardwoods and pine 
is cut the hardwoods immediately sprout, form a cover of dense shade, and 
prevent the reproduction of pine. This is the reason why oak seems to re- 
place pine when cut and why pine is slow^ to come back on cutover areas, 
where it was formerly more abundant. Where there are pine seed trees left 
they will sooner or later seed in the openings, so that gradually the proportion 
c'f pine will increase. Where this condition exists and pine is desired, these 

Ptiyc fh'.rtii-nne 



seedlings and seed trees should be favored, and any cutting of hardwoods 
should be made just before a good pine seed crop. The sprouting of hard- 
woods should be discouraged as much as possible by mid-summer cutting and 
by the cutting back of subsequent young sprouts. If a stand of hardwoods 
should be desired, pine can be eliminated easily by cutting the seed trees. 

Pure Pine or Mixed Pine and Oak. — Although it is known that pine is 
one of the best, if not the best, species to grow on the South Jersey sands 
and that it will succeed well in pure stands, it is possible that a proper 
mixture of pine and oak will utilize the better soils of this region to the best 
advantage. The State foresters are now studying this type to determine 
whether or not this is so. The advantages of this mixture seem to be as 
follows: at the time the first thinnings are made, if there is oak to cut, it 
will yield better cordwood and more of it than pure pine ; but pine, on such 
soils, is best adapted for growth to sawlog size, and should be part of the 
stand so that it may be left for the final crop. Decayed oak leaves will en- 
rich the soil more than pine needles. In short, considering the entire rota- 
tion of thinnings, improvement cuttings and the final crop, it is felt that 
pine and oak may yield more wood and greater profits than could be ob- 
tained from pine or oak alone. Where this mixture is not obtained naturally 
it can often be made by planting pine seedlings between oak stumps on land 
recently cutover. This mixture has the advantage of being cheaper to plant 
than pure pine since at least half of the area will be restocked by oak sprouts. 

WHITE CEDAR FORESTS 

In the past very little study has been made of the proper management 
of white cedar, which forms pure stands in the fresh water swamps of South 
Jersey, because, after the timber has been cut off, most cedar swamps have 
been converted into cranberry bogs. Where conditions are not suited for 
this development, white cedar can be grown very profitably. This species 
should not be confused with the common red cedar, or juniper, which is 
scattered throughout the State, commonly on dry, rather sterile soils. 

Cedar is capable of intensive management, because any tree' 2 inches or 

over in diameter is marketable at a profit. The wood .is durable in the 
ground, so that small trees are sought for bean poles, oyster stakes and rustic 
work ; larger trees make good grape stakes, fence posts, telephone and electric 
poles. Logs 3 to 4 inches in diameter are sawed into lath, while larger logs 
make shingles, box boards, siding, etc. Utilization is very complete. 

White cedar is very tolerant of shade and forms dense, pure, even-aged 
stands, usually so crowded that growth is very slow. Like other species it 
responds to thinning by increased rate of growth. While cedar does not 
ordinarily make very large trees, it is so tolerant and its crowns are so small 
that an astonishing number of trees can grow on a given area. And since 
even the smallest trees can be used, a large quantity of products can be cut 
from even a small tract. 

Thinning Cedar. — When a Stand of cedar reaches the age at which many 
of the trees are from 6 to 10 inches in diameter (usually at about 35 to 40 
years under good conditions), there will be hundreds of trees per acre that 
are crowded, suppressed, dead and dying. Clearly the commonsense practice 

Page thirty-two 




White Cedar is so tolerant of shade and forms such crowded stands, that growth is 

naturally slow. 




But when freed from excessive crowding, cedar responds with a greatly increased rate 

of (jrowth. 
White Cedar is especially adapted to intensive treatment because all sizes of material, even 
small poles, are readily sold at a profit. 

Page thirty-three 



is to salvage these before they become worthless. They can be cut and sold 
at a profit and their removal will benefit the remaining trees. Even stands 
of cedar of bean pole size can be profitably thinned, and should be unless the 
owner is not interested in profits. 

For example, in a 35 year old tract of crowded cedar in Atlantic County, 
there were 2,656 trees per acre from 2 to 8 inches in diameter. A thinning 
removed 1,064 of the most stunted and crowded trees, while 1,592 of the 
thriftiest were allowed to grow. This cutting yielded 400 rustic furniture 
poles and 1,240 bean poles per acre, which were sold at a good profit. These 
trees were retarding the growth of the thriftier trees and most of them 
would have died within a few years. Enough were left to form a full mature 
stand and the ultimate crop will be larger, of better quality and will mature 
more quickly because of this improvement cutting. (See illustration, page 
33.) 

The advantage of thinning early is clearly demonstrated by an unusually 
crowded 65 year old stand of cedar on one of the State Forests in Burlington 
County. One acre contained 7,296 trees, the largest of which were only 
4 inches in diameter. An experimental thinning, to determine whether trees 
of this age would respond to liberation after long suppression, removed 3,185 
trees per acre, and left 4,111 to grow. Enough of the trees cut were fit for 
bean poles to enable the work to pay for itself. A comparison of this tract 
with the 35 year old stand previously described shows emphatically the harm- 
ful results of continued crowding. 

Cedar Must Be Thinned Carefully . — Just how heavily cedar Can be thin- 
ned is not definitely known, although the State foresters are now studying 
this problem. In their constantly wet environment a cedar's roots do not 
need to grow deep for water — hence it is easily uprooted by wind or bent 
over by heavy snow and sleet. The natural close stands are cedar's pro- 
tection. In thinning care must be taken not to open up the stand too much 
so that it will be liable to such damage. 

It is believed that the tendency of cedar to windthrow and snow damage 
can be prevented to some extent by starting to thin early while the trees are 
yet in the "bean pole stage," so that they gradually become accustomed to a 
more open stand. To determine this fact, experimental cuttings are now 
being made and studied on the State Forests. The first cutting is made in 
stands of bean pole size, when the products of thinning are first marketable. 
Subsequent thinnings are made as needed throughout the life of the stand. 



MARKETING FOREST PRODUCTS 

Investigate markets, after deciding what timber should be cut, but be- 
fore starting the actual work of cutting. It is obviously a w\aste of time, 
money and timber to cut trees that cannot be disposed of profitably or used 
at home. Market conditions frequently make it advisable to leave trees 
standing which, for the welfare of the forest, should otherwise be cut. Again 
the owner must sometimes compromise what he would like to do with what 
seems most advisable under the circumstances. 

Page thirUj-four 



Products for Home Use. — Farm woodlots yield many products for home 
consumption. The removal and use of cordwood not only improves the 
woods hv utilizing dead, diseased or inferior material which hinders the 
growth of better trees and which would otherwise be wasted, but also cuts 
down fuel bills considerably. (See page 71.) Fence posts are constantly 
needed on the farm and even non-durable, inferior species can be used if the 
owner provides an inexpensive home creosoting plant, described on page 76. If 
either chestnut or c^dar are available, rail fences are frequently cheaper to 
construct and last longer than wire fences. Timbers and lumber for new 
buildings or repairs can usually be obtained from the woodlot more cheaply 
than the same material could be purchased elsewhere. A farmer who is 
handy with tools can frequently replace broken parts of wagons or farm 
machinery, axe and tool handles, etc., with timber from his woods. 

Local Sale of Products .— Forest products should be marketed locally 
where possible, because transportation is costly and reduces profit. There is 
usually a good demand for cordwood and fence posts among local farmers 
who own no woodland, or among the residents of nearby communities. There 
are dealers in coal, ice and building supplies in most towns who also handle 
these products. Good local markets are provided by nearby wood-using in- 
dustries, such as basket factories, box factories, stave mills, turning mills. 
furniture factories and similar industries. Railroad, trolley, telephone and 
electric companies frequently have local representatives who purchase ties 
or poles. Sawmill operators and lumber dealers ordinarily handle logs and 
most kinds of wood products, and often buy standing timber or "stumpage," 
as it is called. 

Shipping Products. — Where products cannot be disposed of most profit- 
ably in local markets, it is advisable to ship direct to consuming industries 
or to dealers who handle them. This is especially true of high grade or 
special material such as walnut, oak, cherry and similar woods suitable for 
furniture or cabinet work; basket logs; ship knees and boat fenders; iron- 
wood and dogwood bolts; furnace or puddling poles; hickory, oak and ash 
for tool handles, vehicles and implement parts; mine timbers and similar 
products. It is rarely practical to ship less than carload lots by rail, although 
automobile trucks frequently provide economical short distance transportation 
for smaller lots. 

Sale of Stumpage . — A woodland owner is likely to find it most profitable 
to cut the woods and market the products himself, rather than to sell the 
trees as they stand in the woods. He will also then be assured of a careful 
job of cutting, just as he wants it done. If he is not able to handle this 
work himself, he can usually sell standing timber to sawmill operators, 
dealers or jobbers. When this seems necessary or advisable he should assure 
himself that his woods will be treated as he desires and not butchered. 

Stu-npage may be bought by the thousand board feet where sawlogs are 
wanted ; by the cord for fuel or dunnage wood ; by the tree or piece where 
poles, piling or ties are to be cut; by the acre, or by the entire tract pur- 
chased for a lump sum, — all depending upon the individuals and local custom. 
It is usually fairest to sell products subject to measurement after cutting at a 

• Page thiriii-fivv 




Pine woods left in good condition after cutting. Note the low stumps and absence of brush 
or slash to create a fire nienance. 




Careful cutting and thorough utilization in hardwoods. Every tree cut was worked up to the 

best advantage for poles, posts and cord-wood. 
Raising good timber is only half the game: cutting it properly and disposing of it profitably 

is the other half. 
Page thirty-six 



specified amount per piece or per unit of measure (board foot, cord, linear 
foot, etc). Stumpage prices vary as to species, products and localities, since 
they are based upon the sale value of the product, less the cost of logging, 
manufacturing, marketing, and the operator's profit. A stand of timber 
close to market would bring a higher stumpage price than one several miles 
away, because it would cost the operator less to handle it. 

Timber Sale Contracts. — Woodland owners should draw up a written 
contract covering every sale of timber stumpage. Even in small sales much 
trouble and financial loss 'may result from failure to put the terms of the 
sale in writing. 

The primary aim of the seller should be to make absolutely clear the con- 
ditions under which he desires to dispose of his products. The essential pro- 
visions to be inserted in the complete form of timber-sale contract refer to the 
description and location of timber to be cut; the price and manner of pay- 
ments; conditions of cutting and removal; title and means of settling disputes. 

As an aid to those unfamiliar with such contracts, a sample agreement is 
given, showing the more important provisions that should ordinarily be in- 
cluded in the average sale, where the owner wishes to protect himself and his 
timber against undue damage. No single form of contract will suit all 
classes of sales, but owners of woodland should have no difficulty in adapting 
this contract to their use. 

SAMPLE TIMBER SALE AGREEMENT 

THIS AGREEMENT entered into this {25th day of October, 

1922) between (John Jones of Jonesville, Neiv Jersey), herein- 
after called the Owner, party of the first part, and (Henry Broivn 

of Broivnarille, Neiv Jersey), hereinafter called the Purchaser, party of the second 
part; 

WITNESSETH: 

Article I. The Owner agrees to sell to the Purchaser upon the terms and con- 
ditions hereafter stated (State definitely just ivhat timber is to be 

sold. For instance: — all dead and doivn timber and all standing live timber marked 
for cutting ivithin the Owner's 20 acre ivoodlot on his farm in Blank Toivnship, 2 
miles east of Jonesville.) 

Article II. The Purchaser agrees to pay to the Owner for his timber 

(State definitely the terms of payment. This may be a lump sum for all the timber, 
ivith a specified time for certain payments, or the timber may be paid for at a 
certain rate per piece or unit of measure for the products cut, payments to be made 
at definite intervals, before the timber is removed.) 

Articl III. The Purchaser further agrees to cut and remove said timber in strict 
accordance with the following conditions: 

1. Unless extension of time is granted, all timber shall be cut, paid for and 
removed before (December 31, 1923.) 

2. All timber to be cut shall be marked or otherwise indicated for cutting by 
the Owner, and only timber so marked or indicated shall be cut by the Purchaser, 
except as follows: (// may not be necessary to mark the trees by blazes under 
certain conditions, as, for instance, vuhen all the timber is to be cut, or inhere only 
dead timber, trees of certain species, or trees above a certain diameter limit are con- 
tracted for.) 

3. Every tree marked or otherwise indicated for cutting shall be felled, worked 
up to the best advantage and fully utilized by the Purchaser. If any tree containing 
merchantable timber is felled and not used or removed, it shall be paid for at the 

Page thirty-seven 



same rate as if it were used. {This encourages close utilization and discourages 
nvaste.) 

4. Unless otherwise herein provided, sawtimber shall be scaled by the 
(Scribner) log rule, and measured at the small end of the log along the average 
diameter inside the bark. The maximum scaling length of logs shall be 16 feet; 
greater lengths shall be scaled as two or more logs. Upon all logs an additional 
length of 4 inches shall be allowed for trimming. Logs overrunning this allowance 
shall be scaled not to exceed the next foot in length. (T/ie Scribner log rule is 
probably the most satisfactory rule in common use in this region. Scaling extra 
long logs as tivo or more logs gives a larger and fairer scale than scaling one 'very 
long log.) 

5. Stumps shall be cut clean and as low as possible, in no case more than six 
inches above any physical obstruction. {Physical obstruction means sivollen or de- 
cayed butts, rocks, forks, etc.) 

6. No unnecessar}' damage shall be done to yoimg growth or to any standing 
live trees. 

7. The tops and limbs of all felled trees shall be closely lopped and the re- 
sulting brush {State definitely hoiv the brush is to be disposed of, 

as, for instance, scattered close to the ground, or piled in small piles and burned 
nahere it ivill not damage standing trees or young groii'th.) 

8. The Purchaser shall make and maintain in good condition such roads as 
are necessarj' for the removal of the timber and shall have the right to cut and use 
for such purpose any nearby pole wood, PROVIDED, HOWEVER, that the Owner 
shall first approve of the cutting of such wood and that no new roads shall be 
opened until their location shall have been approved by the Owner. 

9. Any and ail timber cut in violation of any of the provisions of this agree- 
ment and timber damaged by fire or otherwise, through the negligence of the Pur- 
chaser, his agents, servants, employees, contractors or sub-contractors, shall be paid 
for by the Purchaser; if six inches or more in diameter breast high, at double its 
market value, and if less than six inches in diameter breast high, at its market value 
plus {$.25) per tree or sprout, which amoimt shall be paid by the Purchaser and 
received by the Owner as liquidated damages. 

Article IV. It is mutually understood and agreed by and between the parties 
hereto as follows: 

1. All timber included in this agreement shall remain the property of the 
Owner until paid for in full. 

2. The Purchaser shall do everything in his power, both independently and 
upon the request of the Owner, to prevent the origin or the spread of forest fire 
on the property covered by this agreement and shall use his entire force without 
charge to the Owner to extinguish any fire found on the same. 

3. In case of dispute over the terms of this agreement, final decision shall rest 
with an arbitration board of three persons, one to be selected by each party to this 
contract, and the third member to be chosen by the first two selected. 

4. This agreement is non-assignable, and a bond for the sum of {$100.00) 
shall be given by the Purchaser to the Owner, conditioned for the faithful per- 
formance of this contract. {The Oivner must decide ivhether or not a bond is nec- 
essary or desirable ) 

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the parties hereto have hereunto set their hands and 

seals this {25th day of October, 1922.) 

Witnesses, Henry Smith. John Jones, Oii-ner. 

Samuel White. Henry Brown, Purchaser. 

A home sawmill is rarely advisable for the average woodland owner, 
because most forest products can be marketed profitably in the rough, and 
because there are many small mills in most sections of the State now accessible 
to the person who occasionally wants a small quantity of lumber sawed. 
Many such mills do custom sawing; that is, logs are brought to the mill by 
the owner and the sawing is paid for in cash, or with a portion of the 

Page thirtij-eiglit 



lumber. To saw high j:;rade lumber requires a first-class sawmill and an 
operator of considerable experience ; many portable mills turn out only low 
grade products because of inferior equipment or because of the inexperience 
or carelessness of the sawyer. 

Occasionally a woodland owner can operate a small mill profitably if he 
has sufficient timber and experienced help. He may even add to his profits by 
purchasing stumpage or logs from nearby woods or by custom sawing for 
his neighbors. However, there are many snares and pitfalls to be avoided 
in the sawmill business and anybody who contemplates entering the field 
should be fully informed of all its phases. 

Directory of Dealers and Industries. — To enable woodland owners to 
find the best markets for their products, a file of New Jersey sawmill opera- 
tors, timber dealers and wood-using industries is maintained by the State 
Forester. He takes no part in any sale and is not responsible for results, 
since the only purpose of this service is to bring together producers and con- 
sumers of New Jersey forest products. Information by mail is sent without 
charge upon request. 

WOODS WORK 

Know the Trees and Their Uses. — When the owner has become thor- 
oughly familiar with the characteristics, habits of growth and uses of his trees 
(see pages 61 to 77), has studied market conditions, and has decided just 
what should and can be done with his woods, he is ready to go to work. 
As far as possible he should know just where he can sell his logs or other 
products and the sizes that are wanted. (Otherwise an owner might cut his 
logs 12 and 16 feet long only to learn afterwards that the buyer wants 10 
and 18 foot logs. Many sawmill operators prefer to buy the entire tree 
length so that they can be cut into the log lengths needed to fill specific 
orders. High grade logs might be fit for furniture or cabinet work, yet 
market conditions and transportation costs may make it more profitable to 
dispose of them for other uses. 

SEASON TO CUT 

Fall and winter are ordinarily the best seasons for woods work. Most 
woodland owners, especially farmers, can find slack time for woods work in 
the winter, when they would otherwise have idle help and teams on their 
hands. There is often more and cheaper labor to be had at this "season. Fre- 
quently the only time that swamps can be worked is when the ground is 
frozen solid. In regions where snow is abundant, winter is a favorite time 
for logging on account of the ease and economy of hauling with sleds. In- 
cidentally, when a man has to work fast to keep warm, he will accomplish 
more than on a hot, summer day. 

During the dormant winter period of tree growth the "sap is down ;" 
that is, there is supposed to be less moisture in the wood than during spring 
and early summer. Trees cut at this time are preferred for many products 
since they season more gradually and therefore do not warp or check as 
much as in hot weather. Most users of such products as poles and ties usually 
specify that they shall be cut during the fall or winter. 

I'(i(/f lliirlihiiiiie 



Work in the woods at odd times, if no regular season can be devoted to 
it, A few days at a time — or even a few hours' work — can accomplish 
wonders, if the worker keeps plugging away at every opportunity. When 
cutting stove wood or getting out a few fence posts, make the woods better 
for their removal. Although the most satisfactory job is ordinarily the one 
that is undertaken systematically, it isn't essential that the entire tract be 
worked over all at once. But no matter when or how the work is done, it 
should always be undertaken in accordance with a previously arranged plan, 
with definite objects in view. 

HOW TO CUT— LOGGING 

Trees Marked for Cutting. — To avoid confusion, trees to be felled 
should be lightly but plainly blazed wjth an axe, or marked with paint or 
crayon, and for convenience the blazes should all face in the same direction. 
When the owner wishes to be certain that only marked trees will be cut, he 
should stamp each blaze with his initials or some other identification mark 
raised like a die on the head of a specially prepared marking axe or hatchet. 
When such precaution must be taken, every tree to be cut should be blazed 
near the ground, on what will be the stump, as well as on the trunk about 
four or five feet from the ground. It will then be a simple matter to detect 
unmarked trees cut or marked trees uncut. 

It is easier to detect crowding in hardwoods if the marking is done when 
the leaves are on. 

Felling Trees. — It is generally easiest and quickest to cut small trees, 
up to 8 inches in diameter, with an axe. Larger trees are first notched with 
an axe on the side in the direction they are desired to fall, and then cut 
through from the opposite side with a cross-cut saw. The saw is less wasteful 
than the axe and is usually preferred in large timber because it cuts faster 
and easier. The person in charge of the work can decide, after a little ex- 
perience, the proper tools to use. 

Before a tree is cut the workers should decide in which direction it should 
be felled, so that it will not lodge against trees left standing. Care should 
be taken to fell it where it will do the least injury to young saplings and re- 
production. Fell the trees so that the limbs and tops will be least in the 
way when the trunks are cut and skidded out. 

In a stand of young timber the work is simple. Mature trees with large 
crowns complicate matters. Where a large tree is to be felled, it is easier 
to decide where it can best fall with least injury if the smaller trees to be 
taken out are first cut. Then an opening will appear as the logical place to 
fell the big tree. When this is done, however, if the tree happens to fall 
on the young trees left, there is no chance of leaving a second-best tree, since 
these have already been cut. But such difficulties are not of major importance 
and can usually be avoided with a little care and foresight. 

Low Stumps. — It is obvious that low stumps mean more products, little 
waste and interfere least with hauling. Low stumps are sometimes impossible 
where trees are forked, or where they grow on steep hillsides, or among large 
rocks; — and impractical when the butts are swollen, hollow or decayed. A 

Page forty 




Careless and wasteful logging. Brush and slash invite forest fires — merchantable timber 
cut and left to decay — standing trees damaged — no provision for another crop. 




^^><^-'i?V. *>^ 



A butchered woodlot. A'ofe the wastefuilp high stumps and tack of brush disposal. Su 

thrift;/ young trees left to form a new stand. 
With the rapid increase in vahie of forest products it is no longer profitable to slash througrh 
the woods like this. But some persons still do it, either from ignorance or force of habit. 

Page forty-one 



good rule to follow is to cut within six inches of the ground where possible, 
or within six inches above any such physical obstruction. This rule is easier 
to follow in small timber than in large. 

When sprout reproduction is desired, stumps should be cut low and with 
a saw if possible, for low stumps mean better sprouts. Smooth topped stumps 
resist decay longer, for there are no hollows to hold moisture. 

Thorough Utilization. — After trees are felled they should be worked into 
the best possible products. What these best products are depends upon their 
value as well as the demand of the market. It can be easily determined 
what products will bring the greatest net profit. 

For example, it is unwise to cut into cordwood trees that are fit for ties, 
poles, piling or sawlogs, if these products can be readily sold or used. Limbs, 
tops and inferior trees should go for cordwood. Get everything possible out 
of every tree. It is a well-known fact that under the old thoughtless manner 
cf logging as much timber has been wasted as has been used. All the 
trees left in the woods should be growing, not rotting. 

If 20 feet of a tree's length is fit for sawlogs, cut it into two 10-foot 
logs, or a 12-foot and an 8-foot log. Don't blunder ahead and cut a 16- 
foot log and then discover that 4 feet has been wasted because the next 
log is too short to be used. If there is a crook in the trunk, cut the logs so as 
to eliminate it if possible, rather than to have it occur in the middle of the 
log, for it is obvious that crooked logs mean considerable sawmill waste in 
slabs. If it is possible to cut a log of clear length (without limbs), do so, 
and throw all the limbs into the second log, for clear lumber free from 
knots is most valuable. 

What has been said for logs pertains also to other products. Use your 
head as well as your axe or saw, — know what products are best, and make 
them. Every branch of forestry, whether it be called silviculture, scientific 
management, or "cutting wood," involves the application of good old com- 
mon sense. 

Hauling . — /\fter cutting, products must be hauled to the place of disposal 
or use. Where they cannot be loaded on wagons or trucks where they fall, 
they must be dragged or "skidded out" to the nearest opening or road. 
Horses are ordinarily used for this work. If roads are good and the haul is 
long, motor trucks are frequently preferable to horses and wagons. The 
operator must figure out the merits of each for himself, as it all depends upon 
local conditions. 

Remember that the more often products are handled and the longer the 
haul, the greater the expense and the smaller the profits. Keep these cost 
items down to a minimum. Operators, disposing of large quantities of cord- 
wood, ties, props and other small sized products, will do well to consider the 
use of an economical motor-truck with trailers. A truck with several trailers 
seems to be a good combination ; for instance, one loaded truck and trailer 
on the road, one trailer in the woods being loaded and one trailer at the 
destination being unloaded. The truck is more constantly on the move and 
this lowers a big item of expense. 

In regions where snow is abundant hauling with sleds is most economical. 

Page forty -two 



Seasoning and Storing Products. — When products are not sold or used 
immediately they should be carefully piled to prevent loss from decay or in- 
sects. For most purposes wood should be seasoned before beinj^ used. Green 
posts decay more rapidly than seasoned posts; wet cordwood doesn't burn as 
well as that thoroughly dried ; green lumber shrinks and warps. Dry, sea- 
soned wood is considerably lighter in weight than fresh cut, green timber, 
and therefore cheaper to haul or ship and easier to handle. Wood commonly 
loses one-third to one-half of its green weight when thoroughly air dried and 
even more when kiln dried. 

Products should be stored under cover where practical as they will dry 
better and be less liable to decay and damage. But remember to keep down 
the cost of hauling and handling. If piled in the woods, consider the pos- 
sibility of loss from forest fires, or better still, take every precaution to guard 
against this menace. 

Wood decays most readily in warm and damp situations, especially in 
contact with the ground. To season wood, always pile it on "skids" (poles) 
at least a few inches of-f the ground, and in loose piles with small sticks be- 
tween layers to induce free circulation of air. This latter precaution is not 
necessary in the case of loose piles of wood like cordwood. 

Wood boring insects sometimes damage stored products, but attacks are 
least likely to occur if the bark is peeled. Removing the bark also hastens 
seasoning. Posts, poles, ties — in fact all products which will come into con- 
tact with the ground — should be peeled. Bark peels most easily on trees 
freshly cut in the spring or early summer, when the sap is rising, but for other 
reasons it is rarely advisable to cut at this time. (See page 39.) 

Wood usually splits most easily when green, and split cordwood and fence 
posts season faster than when left in the round. Drying at a slow, uniform 
rate tends to prevent checking of timber (splitting at the ends). Wood 
decays least and is not subject to insect attack in cold weather. Wood sea- 
sons faster in hot weather. 

SLASH DISPOSAL 

Logging slash is a menace to woodlands and should not be tolerated. 
It not only invites forest fires, but provides the fuel for a hot, destructive fire 
when one does occur. Dead wood is a common breeding place for fungus 
diseases and insects. Slash interferes with woods work and is unsightly, a 
reason for its disposal if the aesthetic value of the woods is important. 

When a tract of timber is properly cut and thoroughly utilized, there 
will not be much slash left on the ground, especially if cordwood is one of the 
products, for cordwood commonly until izes everything down to 2 inches or 
less in diameter. A crowded stand of small crowned trees will leave less 
slash than those with large crowns. 

Lopping Tops. — If slash is lopped into small limbs which will lie Hat. 
close to the ground, it will be pressed down by snow and will soon decay. 
Slash treated in this manner is seldom a menace more than two or three 
years. Brush allowed to remain off the ground will season and resist decay 
for a long time. 

If brush cannot be lopped and scattered conveniently without interfering 

Pctge forty-three 



with young growth or constituting a dangerous fire menace, it may be lopped 
and gathered in small compact piles in convenient openings. 

Burning Slash. — In especially dangerous areas where forest fires are 
likely to occur, as along roads, railroads, near sawmills or buildings, slash 
should be piled in openings and burned. Care should be taken to burn where 
the least damage will be inflicted to standing trees, and at a time when there 
is the least danger of the fire escaping. Slash should never be burned in a 
dangerous season for forest fires. The best time is just after a light snow- 
fall, not wet or heavy enough to prevent the brush burning, but enough to 
guarantee safety. Burning slash and brush is slow work, costly and dangerous 
and should not be undertaken except where absolutely necessary. 

New Jersey's Forest Fire Law requires that a written permit must be 
secured from the local Firewarden for setting any fire in woodland, or within 
200 feet of any woodland or any growth which may carry fire to woodland, 
in any town, township or borough in which Firewardens have been appointed. 
The State Firewarden also has the authority to compel owners to clean up 
slash where it is a dangerous forest fire menace. 

Copies of the law and lists of Firewardens may be secured upon appli- 
cation to the State Firewarden or State Forester, Trenton. 



Page forty-four 



FOREST PLANTING 

The need for planting is not SO great in New Jersey as in many other 
sections of the country where natural forests are lacking or where forest 
growth has heen almost entirely destroyed. Forests should be encouraged 
to reproduce themselves naturally wherever possible, because it is ordinarily 
easier and less costly than artificial reforestation — planting. The greater part 
of New Jersey's two million acres of woodUmd will grow good forests if prcp- 
erly protected from hrc and cared for intelligently. Forest planting is ad- 
visable on non-agricultural land desired for timber production where natural 
growth is inferior, undesirable, insufficient or lacking altogether. 

WHERE TO PLANT 

Abandoned Fields . — Scattered throughout the State there are thcmsands 
of acres of idle fields, formerly cleared for agriculture and abandoned by 
their owners because they have proven unprofitable for farming. In many in- 
stances the soil is not fertile enough to raise good agricultural crops ; in other 
cases the soil is fertile, but so steep that it erodes badly ; or it may be too 
rocky or too wet for farming. Lying idle, these fields are a liability to their 
owners. They can be made productive, and a profitable asset, by planting 
trees. Occasionally abandoned fields revert to forest growth naturally from 
seed scattered by surrounding trees, which makes planting unnecessary if the 
natural reproduction is sufficient in quantity and of satisfactory species. If 
not, the natural growth should be supplemented with planted trees. 

Burned woodlands, where the timber has been killed by forest fires, or 
so badly damaged that natural reproduction cannot produce a satisfactory 
new stand of timber, is another situation where forest planting is advisable. 
It may be that natural seeding or sprouting is not possible, or at best very 
slow and unsatisfactory, or that the better species have been killed off, and 
only inferior species are left to reproduce naturally. Weed trees, like weed 
plants, are hardest to kill off and grow under conditions that discourage better 
species. Scrub oak, fire cherry, red map'e, gray birch and similar inferior 
species of little commercial value, are the ones which commonly come in 
naturally after a bad burn. South Jersey pine usually sprouts after a fire, 
but the sprouts do not make good trees. Under such conditions, where 
natural reproduction is either lacking, insufficient, or of inferior quality, 
forest planting is recommended, provided there is reasonable assurance that 
the fire will not be repeated after the plantation becomes established. 

Woodland denuded by careless lumberin?; is frequently unable to repro- 
duce itself satisfactorily, either as regards the abundance or quality of the 
species. As in the case of burned woods, planting is sometimes the best and 
quickest means of assuring another profitable timber crop. Where compe- 
tition with inferior natural growth is likely to be harmful to the planted 
trees a cutting at the right time will give the planted trees at least an equal 
opportunity to establish themselves. 

Under-planting must frequently be resorted to. to fill in gaps in estab- 

Page forty-five 




Young pines planted on good land not suited to agricultural crops because of its tendency 

to wash. 




Forest plantations on worn-out, abandoned fields not fit for farming. 
There are thousands of acres of abandoned fields in New Jersey that never sliould have been 
cleared. They can be put to profitable work growing forest trees. Until this is dona they 

will remain idle and unproductive. 
Page forty-six 



lished forests where there are large openings or where there are not enough 
trees present to fully occupy the ground. No forest is fully productive unless 
the land is completely occupied by the best trees. In old groves natural re- 
production is often prevented by shade, or by a grass sod covering the ground. 
Where grazing has been permitted in woodlots, the animals have usually 
destroyed seedlings by eating or trampling and planting is often necessary 
to fill gaps or to start a new crop. 

Special timber crops must be grown from planted trees if they cannot 
be obtained from natural forests. With the scarcity and increasing cost of 
many kinds of timber, wood-using industries and users of certain products are 
finding it advisable to assure a future supply of special woods to fill their 
needs. Users of railroad ties, poles, posts, and similar durable woods, the 
natural local supply of which is becoming exhausted, will often find it good 
business to grow them for the future. The same is true of users of basket 
logs, cooperage stock, boxboards and other similar products. Many persons 
are finding Christmas trees a profitable crop that can be grown from planted 
trees in a short time. 

Farm Timber. — A woodlot is an important part of a farm. It supplies 
wood for many purposes — cordwood, fence posts, building timbers, lumber, 
etc. There are frequently wet, rocky or steep fields that are not suitable 
for cultivation, and are less valuable for pasture than for timber growing. 
Owners will find it advisable to plant forest trees on such land, not only to 
supply their own needs, but to grow timber for profitable sale. 

WHAT TO PLANT 

Species adapted to conditions of soil, moisture, exposure and climate 
must be chosen for planting, if success is to be had. For instance, tulip 
poplar and white ash must have a fairly fertile, moist soil ; loblolly pine will 
not succeed in the North Jersey climate ; chestnut cannot be expected to live 
as long as the blight is present. It is always safe to plant species that grow 
well nearby under similar conditions. 

Species suited for the products desired should be planted if the planter 
has any special needs, or wants to raise any particular crops. The table on 
page 50 shows the best species for certain products, adapted to the kinds of 
soils common in New Jersey. Further information regarding the uses of 
trees is found on pages 61 to 77. 

Hardwoods or Evergreens. — There are situations where it is desirable 
to plant hardwood species but in general it can be said that evergreens (coni- 
fers) such as pine and spruce will yield more timber and more profit per 
acre in a given time than hardwoods. Evergreens are better adapted to poor 
soils and make better growth there than hardwoods; ordinarily poor soils 
are those which will be planted. 

Pure or Mixed Plantations. — Many foresters advocate mixed planta- 
tions (two or more species) upon the ground that it is Nature's way, that one 
species helps another, that insects and disease do less harm, if an attack 
occurs, than in pure (one species) forests. These arguments have weight. 

Page forti/seven 



'.,. ^i^ 












.1 .-At. -i. •-./.' .. 

Black Locusts, IS years old, large enoiajh for fence posts. 




yoru'di/ Spruce, 11 years old, ,s' years after planting. These trees were big enough for 

Christmas trees u years ago. 

A planter doesn't liave to wait a lifetime for profits as so many persons believe. Most 

species make fast g:rowth on Jersey soils. Poor farm land may be good forest land. 

Page forty-eight 



yet it is usually easier and often better to plant comparatively small g;roups of 
from one to several acres of a single species, each group representing the 
fittest tree when climate, soil, markets and all other factors are considered. 
A mixture of species is sometimes advisable, as for instance, where it is de- 
sired to grow a short time crop, such as Christmas trees or fence posts, to be 
removed at an early period as a thinning, leaving the remainder to grow to 
sawlog size. Planting black locust in mixture with other species lessens the 
danger of an attack b\^ the locust borer. 

Quick Growing Trees. — Other things being equal, by all means use the 
species that will give quickest returns, but bear in mind that rapid growth is 
usually a response to stimulation through fertile soil, abundant moisture and 
favorable climate. Most species grow well under suitable conditions ; even 
the best will grow slowly under unfavorable circumstances. Many rapid 
growing species lack in quality of wood what they gain in quantity, yet for 
certain products such as pulpvv^ood, cordwood, boxboards, etc., quick growth 
of a large quantity of comparatively low quality wood is usually most 
profitable. 

Nut Trees. — Fair crops of nuts may be, and often are, produced by forest 
trees. However, nut culture is not forestry, but a branch of horticulture, 
like fruit growing. A tree developed for nuts has too much crown to pro- 
duce good lumber ; one grown tall and straight for lumber has too little 
crown to yield much fruit. Dismiss, therefore, all thought of combining 
the two crops. Let fruit (including nuts) be grown where that is likely 
to be profitable and where the trees can be given the care they need. Trees 
for lumber are satisfied with poorer soil and much less care. 

Species Not Recommended. — A few species unfit for economic planting 
in New Jersey have been so persistantly boomed that their real qualities 
should be known. 

Catalpa grows very rapidly on rich, moist soil and in a mild climate. In 
North Jersey its late growth is apt to be frozen ; in South Jersey only the 
best agricultural soils are fit. Its wood is valuable chiefly for posts and poles, 
being very durable, but weak. 

Walnut wood is valuable only when cut from the heart of large, old 
trees. A tree 40 years old might be 12 inches in diameter, }^et contain only 
a 4-inch cylinder of dark heart wood. The sapwood of young black walnut 
is very wide, light in color and practically unmarketable. Moreover, walnut 
demands for good growth soils so fertile that farm crops would undoubtedly 
bring in bigger profits from the same land. The proper place for planting 
walnut is around the farm buildings or along roads and lanes, where shade 
is wanted. Several highly advertised hybrid \arieties of black walnut are 
believed to be unsuited to our climate. 

Other species, such as hard maple, beech, hemlock, etc., are slow in growth 
and not particularly valuable for lumber, so are not recommended for general 
forest planting, although they are sometimes desired for their aesthetic value. 



Page forty-nhxc 



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Fag& fifty 



HOW TO PLANT 

Season to Plant. — In New Jersey, early spring as soon as the frost is 
out of the ground and before the buds open, is best. The planting period 
usually lasts two or three weeks during April or early May, depending upon 
the season. Deciduous trees should never be taken from the ground while 
their leaves are on. Evergreens can be, and often are, planted successfully 
in late summer and early fall, but there is always danger that winter winds, 
often very drying, will put too great a strain upon the weakened root system 
of any tree moved in the fall. There is also more danger of "heaving," as 
the ground freezes and thaws, if trees are planted in the fall. Cloudy or 
wet weather is always better than bright sunshine for planting. 

Young Trees More Satisfactory Than Sowing Seed. — The lowest initial 

cost is found when seeds are sown on the ground, yet neither this method nor 
planting the seeds in prepared spots ordinarily give good results. In Nature 
probably less than one seed in a thousand ever makes a tree. Birds, mice, 
dry weather and many other adverse influences make it advisable to plant 
sturdy young trees. 

Size of Trees. — Small seedlings are most economical and are usually 
satisfactory. They are less expensive to grow or buy than larger trees and 
cost less to handle in planting. Hardwood (deciduous) seedlings are easiest 
handled when one year old; the size and root development of older trees 
makes their use rarely advisable. 

Two year old seedlings of conifers (evergreens) with stems from 4 to 6 
inches high, are best and cheapest to use in planting old fields or cleared 
areas where conditions are favorable. If competition with a thick growth 
of sod, weeds or other trees is excessive, larger trees — three or four years 
old, transplanted from the seed bed — are better, since they have better de- 
veloped root systems, and establish themselves more quickly among unfavor- 
able surroundings. Since they are more expensive to grow or buy and cost 
more to handle than two year seedlings, their use should be avoided if possible. 

A home nursery is not advised unless a very large area isi to be planted. 
The growing of evergreens, in particular, requires much skill, and except in 
rare instances it will be found less costly and more satisfactory to buy plant- 
ing stock from the nurseries specializing in large quantities of small sized 
seedlings especially for forest planting. If conditions make it necessary to 
use large transplants, it is sometimes adv^isable to buy one or two year old 
seedlings and transplant them for a year or two in the home garden. 

Anybody contemplating a home nursery should get complete information 
and expert advice before starting, as it is by no means a simple undertaking. 

Use of Wild Stock. — The transplanting of wild, forest grown seedlings 
to the forest plantation commonly costs more than buying better seedlings 
from a nursery, and is not so satisfactory. Unless very young wild seedlings 
are secured (one or two years old) their roots will have developed to such 
an extent that they will be damaged by moving unless the work is very care- 
fully done. Damaged roots mean a setback and resultant slow growth after 
transplanting. 

Page fiftij-one 




An experimental plantation of Loblolly pine oh a South Jersey State Forest, with many of 
the 15 year old trees 9 inches in diameter, fit for boxboards 12 years after planting. 




A mixed pine mid x/jnici iiiduhil.u,, ,,, W'lurcn Cuunty that yielded 19,000 board feet of 

sdwiof/s per acre at 3k years of arje. 

Short rotations of fast gi-owing trees are often most profitable. Small logs for boxboards. 

and similar products can be grown in from 20 to 40 years. It requires 60 years or more tcv 

grow large trees fit for high grade lumber. 

Fa(je fifty-tiKo 



Where to Get Trees. — The State of New Jersey grows no planting 
stock for public distribution. Young trees can be obtained from many nur- 
serymen, although as a rule those who handle ornamental stock do not have 
the large quantities that are wanted for forest planting, or are not prepared 
to make the price low enough. 

If prices are the. same, buyers are recommended to satisfy their needs 
from reliable nurseries nearest the planting site, or from those which will de- 
liver the stock so that it shall be the shortest time out of the ground. In 
all cases it is advisable to stipulate that stock shall be taken from the ground 
of the vendor — not assembled from other nurseries, and that it shall have 
been subject to State inspection, and guaranteed to be free from dangerous 
insects and disease. Prices should be based upon size, not upon age alone. 

Orders for planting stock should be placed during the fall or winter if 
possible, and at least several weeks before the planting season, to ensure 
getting the species and size desired. Specify delivery a few days or a week 
earlier than the probable earliest date of planting. 

The State Forester will furnish upon request a list of nurseries where 
young trees can be obtained, and will assist in placing orders. 

How to Handle Trees Before Planting. — When a tree is OUt of the ground 

its roots must never become dry. It is especially important to guard ever- 
greens since the foliage is active at all times and the draught upon the root 
moisture is therefore constant. Deciduous trees without leaves are less sen- 
sitive ; in foliage they should never be moved. 

Nurserymen ordinarily ship young trees by parcel post or express with 
the roots well packed and moist. As soon as the package is received open it, 
and thoroughly wet the contents. If planting is to be delayed more than 
48 hours, heel in the plants until wanted. 

Heeling in means putting the trees in the ground temporarily so that the 
roots shall not become dry before they can be regularly planted. Dig a 
trench in well-shaded, moist soil, a little deeper than the length of the tree 
roots, with one side of the trench at about a 45° slope. Spread the trees or 
small bundles of trees in the trench along this slope with the tops up, and 
cover the roots and lower stems with moist earth firmly tamped down. Keep 
the roots straight and spread out. Successive layers of trees may be put in 
the trench, with two or three inches of earth between. Be careful not to 
cover any of the foliage of evergreens with earth. If dry weather comes, wet 
the earth, but not often enough to cause heating. Trees of any kind can 
be kept in this way for several days without injury. 

Preparing the Ground. — As every cost item in growing a forest must 
be carried as an investment at compound interest until the timber is mature, 
it is important to save every possible expense. Though trees undoubtedly 
grow better when planted in prepared and fertilized soil, it is usually ad- 
visable to omit everything of the kind on account of the cost. Forest trees 
will succeed on land too poor for other crops. If the ground is very weedy 
or covered with low brush, it may be mowed or burned over before planting. 
When trees are to be planted among thick, high brush, it is sometimes nec- 
essary to clear out a space around each planting spot, to give the tree a better 

• Page fiftij-three 



opportunity to start. On fields with a verj' heavy sod, trees may be planted 
in a shallow furrow plowed along each row. 

Light Requirements . — In forest planting, as in every branch of silvicul- 
ture, the innate qualities of each tree species with respect to sunlight must 
be considered. Some kinds, such as pine, ash, tulip and Cottonwood will 
endure little shade from other trees and therefore must not be crowded. 
They are called light requiring or intolerant. Others such as spruce and 
fir are less particular and are called shade enduring or tolerant. Tolerant 
trees, when well grown, always have more branches than intolerant trees, 
but more of them can thrive on a given area. An intolerant species must 
never be planted where it will lack sufficient light. This fact must be con- 
sidered in underplanting in woods already established, in plantations of mixed 
species, or on cutover lands where the planted seedlings must compete with 
natural growth of seedlings and sprouts from stumps. 

Spacing . — The proper interval between planted trees depends chiefly upon 
the habits of the species and the expected life of the plantation. Grown for 
timber the trees should be close enough to crowd each other at an early age, 
so that they will grow straight, tall, and free from lower branches. When 
this crowding becomes excessive, thinnings can be made as in the case of 
crowded natural woods. (See pages 19 to 34.) The common practice is to 
plant trees six feet apart each way. Cottonwood should have a little more 
room, Norway spruce a little less. Species intolerant of shade must not be 
crowded too much, but care must also be taken less the trees are too far apart, 
and become bushy and limby. 

Another common practice is to plant alternate trees of two species rather 
close together, one species to be removed at an early age for some small sized 
products that can be profitably disposed of. For example, spruce and pine 
can be alternated four feet apart, the spruce to be removed within 10 years 
for Christmas trees, the pine left to grow to timber size. 

TREES PER ACRE AT VARIOUS SPACINGS. 

3 feet X 3 feet 4840 trees per acre 

4 " X 4 " 2722 

5 " X 5 " 1742 

6 " X 6 " 1210 

8 " X 8 " 680 

10 " X 10 " 435 

Care of Seedlings While Planting. — When ready to plant, mix a "pud- 
dle" or thin paste of mud (clay) and water, in which the roots of the seed- 
lings are immersed to keep them from drying out. Several hundred seedlings 
can be carried to the planting site in a pail containing a few inches of this 
"puddle", or after the roots have been coated with the paste the seedlings 
can be carried in a basket lined with wet moss or burlap. Don't let the roots 
dry out. 

Planting. — Ordinarily the best tool for planting is a mattock or grubbing 
hoe. A small hole is made with the least possible effort — just large enough 

Page fifty-four 



TMF- CORRlCT way TO PLANT "RcE SEEDLINGS 




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T/ie iiiosf iiiiportdtit po'nitx io remember are: make the liole Uinje ciioki/Ii 

lo take the rooln without cramping; press the earth jirmtii around the 

roots. Don't let them dry o\(t. 

to contain the roots without cramping or crowding. Sometimes spades or 
other tools are preferable to mattocks — it all depends upon soil conditions, 
the ground cover, and the worker. If the turf is close or weeds very dense, 
"scalp" a square foot or so of ground where each tree is to stand. A shallow 
plowed furrow along the line of each row of trees sometimes makes planting 
easier where there is a heavy sod. 

Important Directions to Follow. — 1. Keep the cost down. Prepare the 
ground and holes for planting with the least possible effort and expense. 
Do only what is necessary to assure success. 

2. Don't let the roots dry out. 

3. Plant in cloudy or rainy weather if possible, but don't delay too long, 
as this is not essential. 

4. Be sure the tree roots are spread out straight in the hole, and are not 
cramped, crooked, or bunched. 

5. Be sure that the loose earth is tamped back firmly around the roots. 

6. Don't bury any of the seedling's foliage in the earth. Set each tree 
very little if any lower in the ground than it was in the nursery. 

Planting crews of two or three men are probably most efficient. Let one 
man dig the holes, followed by a man who places a seedling in proper position 
in each hole and firms the earth back around the roots. Sometimes it is 
helpful to have the seedlings distributed by a man or boy, so that the planter 
has nothing to carry to interfere with his work. When this is done, the 

Page fifty-five 



seedlings should not be left lying on the ground long enough for the roots 
to dry out. If one man is working alone he can first prepare a number of 
holes and then come back and put in the trees. 

Lining and Spacing. — Where it is desirable to have the rows as straight 
and the trees as evenly spaced as possible, it is an easy matter to set guide 
stakes along the boundarys of the plantation to keep the planters in line. It is 
always well to keep the spacing approximately even as then each tree has 
equal growing room and when thinning is necessary later on, it is more easily 
done. Usually it is not advisable to spend much time providing absolutely 
straight rows. On areas covered with patches of brush, or already partly 
occupied by trees, advantage must be taken of openings where the young 
seedlings will be hampered as little as possible by surrounding and competing 
growth. Under such conditions it is of course impracticable to keep the 
rows straight and the spacing even. Never plant a seedling under brush 
or other trees if it can be planted in an opening between. 

SUBSEQUENT CARE 

Little Attention Needed. — A forest plantation ordinarily needs no cul- 
tivation and little special care. Fires must be kept out, of course, and live 
stock must not be permitted to graze for they injure and kill seedlings by 
trampling even when they do not eat them. No expense for cultivation is 
warranted unless more than the economic production of lumber is involved. 
Harmful insects and tree diseases sometimes attack plantations, but ordinarily 
can be readily checked. (See page 85.) 

Replacement. — [f as many as 30 per cent of the trees die, the gaps should 
be filled within two years. If the loss is less, and fairly well distributed, 
this is generally not necessary. 

Cutting Back. — When the growth of hardzvoods is slow, or when they 
have been injured in any way after planting, growth can be stimulated by 
cutting off each young tree just above the ground early in the growing season 
(spring or early surmer.) The succeeding shoot is stronger and ultimately 
taller than the original would have been. Conifers (evergreens) should 
never be cut back, for removing or injuring the leader destroys the form of 
the tree. 

Cleaning. — When a plantation is 5 or 10 years old, sometimes earlier, it 
may be necessary to cut out competing weed trees, high brush and other un- 
desirables. This should be done only when such growth interferes with the 
upward development (height growth) of the planted tree. Keep the crowns 
of the young trees free to the sunlight ; let low growing brush and weeds 
alone, for they stimulate height growth, shade the ground and conserve 
moisture. 

Pruning limbs is ordinarily not necessary, since this is done by Nature 
in a properly planted forest. Limbs make knots and knots make low grade 
lumber; therefore tall, straight trunks free from limbs are wanted. That 
is why the trees are planted so close together. In the average plantation of 
pine, spaced 6 feet by 6 feet, the crowns of the trees will touch each other 

Page fifty -six 



within lU years after planting. This overhead canopy of shade kills off the 
lower limbs, and within 3 or 4 years the dead limbs drop off. This is natural 
pruning. Where lower limbs do not prune well naturally, they may be cut 
or knocked off as high up as a man can reach with an axe. The expense of 
this work should be avoided if possible by providing conditions suitable for 
natural pruning. 

Many persons become concerned over the death of these lower branches, 
and fear that their plantation is too thick, especially when crowded trees die 
here and there. There is no cause for alarm. To force height growth and 
clean trunks the plantation miist be dense, and the crowding process will nec- 
essarily kill many trees. But remember that where 1200 trees are planted on 
an acre, not over half this number should be left standing at 25 years of age, 
and at 50 years only about one-third or one-quarter of the trees should be left. 

Thinning. — Ordinarily plantations made as herein described will need no 
thinning until 20 years or more of age. When improvement cuttings are 
necessary, proceed as in the case of any similar crowded, natural forest. ( See 
pages 19 to 34.) 

COSTS AND PROFITS OF PLANTING 

Cost of Labor. — Under average conditions of planting on old fields, two 
men can plant from 1000 to 1500 trees per eight hour day — more or less 
depending upon soil conditions, ground cover, size of seedlings, and the ex- 
perience and ability of the planters. Six foot spacing gives 1210 trees per 
acre ; therefore two men will ordinarily plant a little more than an acre a 
day. At prevailing wages (1922) this means an average cost of from $4 
to $6 per acre for labor. This cost will be higher or lower according to the 
spacing and number of trees planted per acre. 

Cost of Trees. — The cost of nursery stock has been abnormally high dur- 
ing the period of the World War and the years immediately following, but 
with the passing of unsettled conditions, prices are again becoming normal. 
Two year old seedlings of many of the most desirable coniferous species now 
(1922) cost from $4 to $10 per thousand and within a year or two prices 
may be even lower, (^ne year seedlings of many hardwood species can be 
bought for less than $10 per thousand, some as low as $2.50 per thousand. 
Three and four year old coniferous transplants are more expensive and can 
rarely be purchased for less than $10 or $15 per thousand, and they fre- 
quently cost more. This high cost ordinarily prevents their use in forest 
planting. 

Cost of Average Plantations. — The cost of planting an acre of trees varies, 
as has been explained above, according to conditions. The seedlings and 
the labor for a plantation of trees spaced 6 feet apart, will ordinarily cost 
from $8 to $15 per acre, and will average about $10 to $12. The average 
plantation with trees spaced 8 feet apart will cost about $6 per acre: with 
5 foot spacing, $15; with 4 foot spacing, about $25. 

When the planter desires to keep strict account of all costs, as is done in 
business, he must figure the value of his land, the cost of planting, taxes, 

l'(i(ie fifty-seven 



care and protection, at compound interest for the period of years required to 
mature the crop. For example, with land worth $5 per* acre and an initial 
planting cost of $10 per acre, the cost (including taxes) of carrying the plan- 
tation at 4 per cent compound interest for 30 years would be about $60; 
for 40 years, about $90; for 50 years, about $135. In other words, this is 
what the amount of his original investment would increase to in the bank 
at compound interest. For simplicity only the initial costs and taxes are con- 
sidered, although there would probably be some small intermediate costs, as 
well as some income from thinnings. The latter, however, should more than 
balance the former. Where abandoned fields are planted, it is ques- 
tionable whether the land value is fairly considered as an item of cost. 
The owner has this idle land on his hands, it is valueless for farming, and 
is usually unsalable. 

Profits from Plantations. — Forestry, including forest planting, Is by no 
means a get-rich-quick proposition, but it pays fair profits and utilizes other- 
wise waste land. Moderate returns are better than nothing at all. It re- 
quires little capital and only a small initial investment ; the returns are sure 
and steady and will ordinarily net a profit on the original investment of at 
least 6 per cent to 10 per cent or more, as timber values increase. 

Neither does forestry involve waiting a life time for profits, as so many 
persons believe. Properly undertaken, a plantation should begin to yield an 
income in from 6 to 20 years, and at intervals of from 5 to 10 years apart 
thereafter. The mature crop can usually be harvested in from 30 to 60 
years. Moreover, as timber becomes scarcer, a young, thrifty, immature 
forest will have a sale value, just as a fruit orchard not yet in bearing, has. 
The value of an immature forest may be determined by discounting the ulti- 
mate value at maturity back to the present time. 

Ordinarily in estimating the probable profits of forestry, the value of the 
ultimate yield is based upon the present stumpage value of the expected 
crop, — that is, what the trees would be worth if standing in the forest at the 
present time, at present prices. This estimate of value is ultra-conservative, 
for timber values are steadily increasing. Moreover, since an owner can 
readily cut and market his crop, if he desires, it is only fair to consider him 
entitled to the profit of this work, which will usually be at least equal to the 
stumpage value of the crop. A fruit-grower figures his profits on a crop of 
apples picked and packed, rather than growing in the drchard. A farmer 
values his crops the same way. So should the timber grower. 

Expected Yields and Profits. — A plantation of pine on fairly good forest 
soils, which may be unfit for profitable farming, will ordinarily yield 20 
thousand board feet of sawlogs per acre in 40 years, worth $200 standing 
in the forest at present stumpage prices, or about 6 per cent profit on the 
original investment. But 40 years from now timber stumpage may easily 
be worth twice as much as at present, or even more ; — values are sure to in- 
crease considerably as timber becomes scarcer. Furthermore, this timber now 
worth $200 per acre standing in the forest, is worth at least $400 cut into 
logs and delivered at a sawmill or manufacturing plant. For example, lumber 
worth $50 a thousand board feet is sawed from trees valued at about $10 

P«</e fifty-ei(jht 



per thousand board feet stumpage. The average charge for custom sawing 
logs delivered at the mill in New Jersey is about $12.50 per thousand board 
feet. The cost of cutting and hauling the logs rarely exceeds $10 per thou- 
sand board feet, and may be considerably less for short hauls. In other 
words, the average cost of producing $50 worth of lumber ordinarily does not 
exceed $32.50, including the stumpage value. There remains considerable 
profit for those who do the work. The stumpage owner — the planter or 
the woodlot owner — may partake of these profits if he will. 

The same plantation described above may be expected to yield at least 
25 thousand board feet in 50 years, or 30 thousand feet in 60 years. The 
cost of carrying the plantation longer than 40 years will increase as the com- 
pound interest charged to the original investment, but the timber will be 
worth more because the crop will be larger and its quality better. On poor 
forest soils the yields will be less, of course, but it should be remembered that 
poor agricultural land may be excellent for growing timber, and that really 
poor forest soils are ordinarily restricted to dry, rocky ridge tops, very wet 
swamps, or unusually sterile areas of the South Jersey sands. 

An acre of fairly strong, moist but well drained soil planted to black 
locust should yield at least 2000 of the most durable fence posts, besides a 
quantity of fuel wood from tops and limbs, in from 15 to 25 years. After 
the trees become established the plantation may be used for a chicken yard 
or similar use, for which the shade and protection of the trees is an advan- 
tage. Locust planted in 1907 on good soil at the Agricultural Experiment 
Station farms near New Brunswick was satisfactorily used for a chicken 
run, and in 1918, after 12 years' growth, trees 40 feet tall and from 4 to 6 
inches in diameter were cut for posts. (See illustration, page 48.) In 
from 25 to 35 years an acre of locust growing under favorable conditions 
should yield at least 400 railroad ties, 1000 to 1500 fence posts, and a quan- 
tity of cordwood. Locust ties now sell for $1.25 to $1.50 per tie, and locust 
fence posts are worth from 25 to 50 cents each. These prices will undoubt- 
edly increase as chestnut becomes exhausted. The cost of planting an acre of 
locust should not exceed $8 for labor and seedlings. 

An acre of spruce, or spruce and pine, planted with 4-foot spacing (2700 
trees per acre) costs not over $25 to establish, and should yield from 1000 
to 1500 Christmas trees from spruce thinnings in from 6 to 12 years, leaving 
enough trees of pine or spruce to produce 20 thousand board feet of timber 
in 40 years, or 30 thousand board feet in 60 years. Christmas trees of this 
size now retail at from 50 cents to $2.00 each. 

A planter in Morris County has sold more than $2000 worth of j-oung 
trees to his neighbors for ornamental planting and removed only the crowded 
trees that would have ultimately been lost. Enough trees still remain to 
produce a good stand of timber. This plantation of several acres originally 
cost about $300 to establish. 

During the period of the World War labor conditions forced a municipal 
Water Department in Essex County to neglect its forest nursery temporarily, 
and as a result many pines and spruces became too large for economical use 
in their forest plantations. This nursery originally cost less than $100 to 

Page fiftij^ine 



establish. In the spring of 1922 more than $1000 worth of crowding young 
trees were sold on the ground to persons who came and dug them for orna- 
mental planting. 

This sale of young trees from forest plantations offers a very profitable 
market for "thinnings," but it should be remembered that the trees do not 
have the closely bunched root systems of trees frequently transplanted in a 
commercial nursery, and cannot be expected to compete with them as re- 
gards quality. Consequently they must be carefully removed with a good 
ball of earth attached to the roots and at an early age to succeed after 
replanting. 



Page sixty 



HELPFUL INFORMATION 

CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF FOREST TREES 

An understanding of the characteristics and uses of trees is necessary for 
anyone who would work his vvooiis intelligently. New Jersey forest regions, their 
location, extent and composition, have already been described on pages 3 to 6. 
The following description includes most native trees and exotic species recommended 
for planting, but does not attempt to give more than the chief characteristics and 
uses of each. Bear in mind that the growth habits of a species vary considerably 
according to conditions. 

Hardwoods and Evergreens. — Our native trees are divided into two classes, 
hardwoods and evergreens. The bread-leaved foliage of the hardwoods is decidu- 
ous, — that is, the leaves fall in the autumn. The evergreens have needle-like leaves 
which usually remain green on the trees throughout the year. They are also called 
conifers, because their fruits are cones. The wood of evergreens is usually softer 
than that of hardwoods, although there are exceptions, and it also differs from hard- 
woods in that it is resinous. 

HARDWOODS OR DECIDUOUS SPECIES 
OAK 

White oak {Quercus alba) is one of our most valuable, important and abundant 
hardwoods and is found in all parts of the State, although in South Jersey it rarely 
occurs on the poorer soils. Its hard, strong, fairly durable wood is the standard of 
excellence among oaks. It has a wide range of uses, including furniture, ships, 
v-ehicles, interior finish of houses, agricultural and other implements, cooperage, 
baskets, piling, ties, posts, and cordwood. White oak reproduces well naturally 
either from seeds or sprouts, and makes moderate growth on fairly strong, well- 
drained soils, but does not tolerate dense shade. It is one of the best trees to favor 
where growing conditions are suitable. 

Red oak {Quercus rubra) is similar to white oak in most of its characteristics, 
habits and uses. Its valuable lumber is only slightly inferior to that of white oak, 
although it is less durable for ties or posts unless creosoted. Red oak usually grows 
more rapidly than white oak and therefore is preferred for planting, especially on 
soils of moderate fertility. 

Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) is of considerable value in New Jersey wood- 
lands, for it thrives on dry, rocky ridges or sands too poor to grow most other trees 
successfully. In such situations the form of the tree is apt to be crooked and growth 
slow, but it should be favored because it is the best tree for the site. Its lumber is 
similar to that of white oak, and is used chiefly for ties, posts and cordwood. 

There are many other native oaks of some importance. Swamp White oak 
{Quercus platanoides) , Post oak {Quercus minor) and Bur oak {Quercus macro- 
carpa) resemble white oak in many respects, but are less important because less 
abundant. Black oak {Quercus velutina). Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) and 
Pin oak (Quercus palustris) are similar to red oak, although somewhat inferior in 
quality of lumber. Pin oak commonly inhabits wet situations, and is used chiefly 
for piling. Its lumber is very knotty, due to numerous small limbs which persist 
well down the trunks. The scrub oaks, several species of which are found on barren, 
rocky ridges in North Jersey and mixed with pine on the poorer sands of South 
Jersey are the only oaks that are not valuable. Many misinformed persons refer 
to all South Jersey oak as "scrub oak", which is wrong, as many of the most valuable 
species make good growth in this region when protected from fire, though recently 
cut-over areas covered with young sprouts do look rather "scrubby" for the first 
few years. 

Page sixty-one 



HICKORY 

Hickory has been called the indispensable wood because for some purposes no 
other can fill its place. It is very heavy, very hard, very strong, tough and flexible, 
qualities which make it valuable for vehicle parts, tool handles and agricultural im- 
plements. It makes excellent fuel, and is often used in curing meats. The wood 
decays rapidly in the ground or when exposed to the weather. 

Shagbark hickory {Hicoria ovata) whose fruit is the common hickory nut in 
the markets, and Pignut hickory {Hicoria glabra) are our most common and im- 
portant native species. They are found in all parts of the hardwood region on the 
better soils, especially those that are moist but well drained. While hickory is 
usually of rather slow growth, and quite exacting in its soil requirements, it is one 
of the best trees to favor because of the value of its wood, even in small trees con- 
sisting largely of sapwood. It reproduces well naturally from seeds or sprouts and 
since the young trees are quite tolerant of shade, they establish themselves readily 
under larger trees. Many old abandoned fields and pastures are coming up in 
hickory from nuts scattered by squirrels. 

Big Shellbark hickory {Hicoria laciniosa), which produces large nuts of ex- 
cellent quality, and Mockernut hickory {Hicoria alba), are also valuable species 
occasionally found throughout southwestern New Jersey. Bitternut hickory {Hicoria 
minima) is a tree of less importance which commonly adapts itself to dry, rocky 
ridges in North Jersey, where it is apt to be scrubby in form. 

ASH 

White ash {Fraxinus Americana) is another of the most important hardwood 
species. The wood is very strong, tough and flexible (similar to hickory in many 
respects) — qualities which make it valuable for tool handles, vehicle parts, agricul- 
tural implements, paddles and oars, baseball bats, etc Ash has an important use 
in the framework, rudders and propellers of airplanes, where wood of great 
strength, lightness (in comparison to strength), and ability to stand extreme stress 
is essential. White ash grows vigorously on fairly strong soils too wet for cultiva- 
tion, although it prefers a moist but well drained site. The sapwood and heartwood 
are equally valuable, so that trees can be marketed at an early age. Reproduction 
from seeds or sprouts is usually good, and this species is also recommended for 
forest planting under suitable conditions. A yield of 10,000 board feet or 20 cords 
per acre in 25 years is easily possible. An insect known as the "oyster shell scale" 
frequently attacks ash plantations, and must be watched for. 

Black ash {Fraxinus nigra) produces a wood somewhat inferior to that of 
white ash, and is far less abundant in New Jersey. It is most commonly found in 
wet, swampy situations. Green ash {Fraxinus lanceolata) is a valuable species 
which occurs but rarely in this State. 

CHESTNUT 

Chestnut {Castanea dentata) was formerly abundant in New Jersey wood- 
lands, but within the last ten years it has been almost exterminated by the fungus 
disease known as chestnut blight. Some of the diseased trees are still alive, but 
practically all New Jersey chestnut will be gone before the year 1925. All standing 
trees still sound enough to be merchantable should be marketed immediately, or at 
least cut, piled and seasoned to prevent further decay. The loss of chestnut is par- 
ticularly deplorable since it was a species well adapted for forestry management 
because of its extremely rapid growth even on poor soils, its ability to reproduce 
prolifically from either seeds or sprouts, and the ready utilization of tops and small 
trees into marketable products. The wood is durable in contact with the soil, and 
is used extensively for poles, ties, mine timbers, fence posts and rails, while the 
lumber is used for cheap furniture, planing mill products, turnery, slack-cooperage, 
wooden-ware, etc. Whether or not chestnut will ever develop immunity from the 
blight and again become abundant in this State, cannot be foretold at this time. 

Page sixty-two 



TULIP POPLAR 

Tulip poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera), also called Yellow poplar and White- 
wood, is our most valuable deciduous soft-wood tree. It tolerates little shade but 
grows very rapidly on fertile, moist but well-drained soils, and forms tall, straight 
trees of excellent form for sawlogs. The wood is soft, light, fine grained, and yields 
a high grade lumber used extensively for planing mill products, musical instru- 
ments, cabinets, interior finish of houses and boxes. The manufacturers of veneer 
baskets use large quantities in this State. Tulip is recommended for planting on 
soils suitable for its growth where a yield of 30,000 board feet per acre in 50 years 
can be expected. It is one of the best species to favor in woodland where it occurs 
naturally, but, it should not be confused with the less valuable species of aspen, also 
called "poplar." 

BASSWOOD 

Basswood {Til'ta Americana) is a tree similar to tulip poplar in many respects, 
though more tolerant of shade and rather less rapid in growth. It is found mixed 
with other species on fairly strong, moist soils in the hardwood region. Its light, 
soft but rather tough wood is used largely for trunks, boxes and baskets, as well as 
for general millwork, furniture, carriages, matches, woodenware, novelties and ex- 
celsior. The fibrous inner-bark furnishes bast for mats, cordage, etc. It is a good 
species to favor where it occurs naturally. 



ASPEN 

Largetooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) , also called poplar, is the common 
species of aspen scattered throughout North Jersey. Quaking aspen {Populus 
tremuloides), a northern species, is less abundant in this State. The wood of both 
species is very light, soft and weak, and is used chiefly for paper pulp and excel- 
sior, and to some extent for box boards and veneer. Aspen grows very rapidly on 
good, moist but well-drained soil, but is sometimes found on drier soils of poor fer- 
tility. It is not abundant in New Jersey, and is not considered a valuable species 
to favor. It matures and dies at a relatively early age. Aspen should not be con- 
fused with tulip poplar, which is a very valuable species. 

Cottonwood {Populus delioides), also called Carolina poplar, is a species 
rarely found naturally in New Jersey, but well adapted to planting on moist, but 
not swampy, soils. It makes extremely rapid growth, a yield of 25,000 board feet 
per acre in 30 years being common. Like the aspen it is intolerant of shade, and 
must not be planted too closely. The wood is soft, light and weak, and is used 
chiefly for excelsior, paper pulp, boxes and baskets. 



ELM 

White elm {Ulmus Americana) is the largest, most abundant, and most im- 
portant elm found throughout the hardwood region of New Jersey. Slippery elm 
{Ulmus ful-va) well known because of its thick, mucilaginous inner bark, is second 
in importance, although the trees are less abundant and usually smaller in size. 
Cork elm KUlmus racemnsa) is another important species, but is not common in 
New Jersey. The wood of elm is heavy, hard, strong and has in a high degree the 
ability to \vithstand shock. It is one of the best woods for bending, and is difficult to 
split, qualities which make it well suited for slack cooperage, boxes, baskets and 
crates, vehicle parts, furniture, woodenware and miscellaneous implements. While 
elm is not one of our most valuable trees, it is of considerable importance, and should 
be favored especially on wet soils where it occurs naturally. It grows quite rapidly 
and tolerates some shade. 

Page sixty-three 



BEECH 

Beech {Fagiis atropiinicea), although nowhere abundant in New Jersey, occurs 
scattered along the borders of streams and on moist lower slopes in the hardwood 
region, usually associated with maple, ash, birch, hickory, basswood and hemlock. 
It is a slow growing species, very tolerant of shade. The heavy, hard, close grained 
wood is difficult to work and to season, and is not durable. The rather low grade 
lumber is used chiefly for furniture, shoe lasts, woodenware, and similar purposes 
where a hard, smooth surface is desired. In the northern states the three common 
associates — beech, birch and maple — are used extensively for chemical wood, from 
which wood alcohol, acetate of lime, wood tar and charcoal are the products of a 
process of distillation. In New Jersey beech is not a valuable species. 

MAPLE 

Sugar maple (Acer saccharum), commonly called hard maple, occurs on moist, 
fairly strong soils in the northern part of New Jersey, and is our most important 
maple. Its wood is hard and strong, and is used for furniture, flooring, interior 
finish, vehicles, tool handles and various implements, woodenware, shoe lasts, musical 
instruments, as well as for chemical wood where it is abundant. It is more common 
in the northern states, where "sugar bushes" of that species produce the delicious 
maple sugar and sirup. 

Red maple {Acer rubrum) is the most common native species of maple, found 
on moist soils, or even in swamps, in all parts of New Jersey, but its lighter, weaker 
wood is somewhat inferior in quality to sugar maple, although it has much the same 
uses. A still less valuable species is the Silver maple {Acer saccharintim), which 
grows rapidly, matures at an early age, and is subject to many forms of decay. 
It is a common, but unsuitable, tree for street planting. The maples are not in- 
cluded among our most valuable trees. 

BIRCH 

Like beech and maple the birches are important species in the chemical in- 
dustry of the northern states, and their hard wood is used for much the same 
purposes as maple, but in this State they are not regarded as particularly valuable. 
Yellow birch (Betula liitea) and Black or Sweet birch {Bettila lenta) are the 
principal lumber species, and are commonly found on moist soils in the northern 
counties. Gray birch {Betula populifolia) , locally called White birch, closely re- 
sembles the true White or paper birch of the North, and like it commonly takes pos- 
session of abandoned fields. Its wood is rather soft and weak and has little value 
in this State except for bean poles and fuel. Another unimportant species is River or 
Red birch {Betula nigra) which, as its name implies, commonly inhabits the banks 
of streams. 

GUM 

Red gum {Liquidamber stryaciflua) , also called Sweet gum or Bilsted, is a 
tree of considerable importance in the hardwood region of Central and South Jersey, 
where it commonly occurs on wet, or even swampy soils. Its medium hard, fairly 
strong wood is used chiefly for boxes, crates and baskets, slack cooperage, furniture, 
woodenware and novelties. It is not an especially valuable species, but is of con- 
siderable local importance in regions where it is common. It is well to favor this 
tree on wet soils. 

Black gum {Nyssa sylvatlca) , commonly known as Pepperidge or Sour gum, 
is a swamp tree neither abundant nor valuable. The wood is very difficult to split, 
and when steamed is sometimes used for veneer boxes or baskets. It is also used for 
"rolls" or "rollers" in factories. 

Page sixty-four 



LOCUST 

Black locust {Rohinia psuedacacia), or Yellow locust as it is sometimes called, 
is not native to New Jersey, but has been planted here in groves or along fences 
rows and highways for many years. Its very heavy, very hard, very strong, very 
durable wood is excellent for fence posts, railroad ties, insulator pins, tree-nails, 
and other uses where extreme strength and durability are desired. It grows very 
rapidly in early life on strong, well drained soils, reaching a size suitable for fence 
posts in from 10 to 20 years, and for railroad ties in 25 to 35 years. It may become 
one of our most valuable hardwoods for planting although it is susceptible to damage 
by the locust borer, an insect which sometimes destroys entire groves. Recent inves- 
tigations indicate that individual trees or open stands are much more likely to be 
damaged than close, dense stands, as the insects seem to avoid shade. If this proves 
to be true, the pests can be readily controlled by planting close or in mixture with 
other species. 

Honey locust {Gleditsia triacanihos) is a less common and less important 
species that has been planted to some extent for shade in this State. Its character- 
istics and uses are similar to those of Black locust. 

WALNUT 

Black walnut [Juglans nigra) is one of the highest priced woods in this coun- 
try, and has been so extensively used for cabinet work, furniture, and gunstocks that 
it has become very scarce. In New Jersey it is only found along fence rows, high- 
ways or in groves where it has been planted. Walnut thrives only on fertile soils 
that could usually support agricultural crops, and therefore is not recommended for 
forest planting. Moreover, since only the heartwood is of great value, a tree must 
reach considerable size before it can be marketed to the best advantage. Where 
shade and nuts are wanted, as along lanes and highways, or around farm buildings, 
black walnut is a good tree to plant. 

Several hybrid varieties of walnut have been advocated for planting recently, 
but the optimistic claims made in their behalf as to rate of growth and the profits 
to be derived have been generally found to be exaggerated, except for unusual con- 
ditions of climate and soil fertility, where agricultural crops would probably prove 
even more profitable. 

Butternut {Juglans cinerea) is less common and less popular than walnut, but 
produces a handsome, though inferior, wood. As a forest tree it is of little im- 
portance. 

OTHER HARDWOODS 

Black cherry {Primus serotina) is a very valuable furniture and cabinet wood, 
but is rarely found in New Jersey. Fire cherry and Choke cherry are unimportant 
weed trees, never growing very large, and practically good for nothing but firewood. 

Sycamore {Platanus occidentalis), usually found bordering streams and 
swamps, is one of the largest hardwood trees in the United States in the diameter 
of trunk, although others surpass it in height. In the Ohio Valley trees 14 feet in 
diameter have been found. It is not an important species in New Jersey. The wood 
is tough and difficult to split, and is used for boxes, baskets and butcher blocks 

While not a forest tree, apple wood from orchards which have outlived their 
usefulness is used in the manufacture of tobacco pipes and fine saw and tool handles. 
The wood is hard and dense. Sassafras {Sassafras sassafras), usuallv a shrub, 
but sonietimes of tree size, is regarded as a weed tree although it makes' fair fence 
posts, since its rather soft wood is quite durable. Dogwood {Cornus florida), well 
known because of its beautiful flowers in the spring, produces a small scrubby tree, 
occasionally large enough to be utilized. The wood is very hard, very heavv and 
close-fibred and is used for shuttles and wooden bearings. Persimmon {Dio's penis 
I irgmiana) is a rather rare species occasionally found in South Jersey, which makes 
good shuttles and wooden bearings. Holly {Ilex opara), famous for its leaves and 

Page ^ixtp-five 



berries as Christmas decorations, is a small tree commonly found mixed in with 
South Jersey hardwoods. Its white wood is used chiefly as inlay in the manufacture 
of musical instruments, where it affords fine contrast with walnut, mahogany, cherry, 
and other dark woods. Hornbeam {Ostrya Virginiana) and Blue Beech 

(Carpinus Carolinian a), both known as ironwood, form small trees of very tough, 
hard wood, occasionally used for tool handles, woodenware and fuel. Witch Hazel 
{Hamamelis Virginiana) is a shrub that occasionally reaches small tree size. The 
wood is of no commercial value, but an extract from the bark is used extensively in 
medicine. 

These species are all regarded as weed trees and should be discouraged in 
woodlands in favor of more valuable species. At the same time, where they do 
occur they should be used and marketed to the best advantage. Many an owner 
has found an unexpected profit by hunting up a market among the specialized in- 
dustries that use these species. 

CONIFERS OR EVERGREEN SPECIES 
PINE 

Pitch pine (Pintts rigida) is the common pine of the South Jersey sands, but 
is also found scattered along the ridges of North Jersey. The wood is of medium 
weight and hardness, rather coarse grained and decidedly resinous. While it does 
not make high grade lumber, it makes good common lumber. Large quantities are 
used locally for box boards, construction lumber, piling and fuel. This species is 
especially suited to the box board industry, which makes a permanent demand for a 
relatively cheap lumber. 

Pitch pine is by no means the valueless tree that many persons imagine; re- 
peated fires are the cause of its common stunted and scrubby form. It makes fair 
growth on soils too poor for most other species, reproduces prolifically from natural 
seeding, and resists fire damage better than any other tree. For these reasons it is 
one of the best species for the South Jersey sands. Like all the pines, it tolerates 
little shade. Pitch pine is one of the few conifers to reproduce from sprouts, although 
the sprouts are scrubby and never make sizable trees. 

Shortleaf pine {Piniis echinata) or "two-needle" pine, as it is called locally, 
is less abundant than pitch pine in Central and South Jersey, where it usually 
occurs mixed with the latter species and oak on the better soils. Although similar to 
Pitch pine in most respects, the form of the tree is usually better and the lumber 
is of higher quality. Shortleaf pine is well adapted to the South Jersey sands and 
is recommended for planting in this region. 

Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is a native of the Southern states, where it grows 
with marvelous rapidity. It is a tree similar in many respects to pitch pine, although 
its lumber is of higher quality. Recent experimental plantations indicate that it can 
be grown successfully in South Jersey, but that in exposed situations north of Tren- 
ton, it succumbs to drying and freezing winter winds. For the present, until more 
is learned of its adaptability to New Jersey conditions, it is recommended only for 
experimental planting. 

Scrub pine {Pinus Virginiana) is a relatively unimportant species found scat- 
tered with the other South Jersey pines, chiefly along the western edge of the pine 
belt. As the name implies, it is usually scrubby in form. Where trees of suitable 
size are found, it is marketed and used together with Pitch pine. 

White pine (Pinus strobus) is found in limited quantities scattered throughout 
North Jersey, although here, as elsewhere, the original supply has been greatly de- 
pleted because of the value of its soft, fine-grained wood for building lumber, plan- 
ing mill products, boxes, crates, etc. This species grows very rapidly on fertile, 
well-drained soils, or even on poorer soils if not too wet, and is one of the best 
to favor where it now occurs. Extensive planting is not advised at present because 
of the danger of the blister rust disease, now so destructive in New England. 
Another common enemy is the White Pine weevil, an insect which deforms young 

Page sixty-six 



trees by killing the terminal shoot. Were it not for these pests, white pine would be 
one of our most promising trees for planting, since it is adapted to South Jersey 
sands as well as to North Jersey hillsides. A yield of 30,000 board feet per acre in 
50 years is not excessive. 

Red or Norway pine {Pinus resinosa), the common pine of the Lake states, is 
not native to New Jersey, but it is highly recommended for planting as a substitute 
for white pine, for it is similar to this species in many respects and apparently has 
no dangerous enemies. The wood is a little heavier than white pine, but also 
stronger, and is used for similar purposes. Red pine grows almost as rapidly as 
white pine and its soil requirements are similar. 

Scotch pine (Pinus syl-vestris) is the common pine of Europe. It thrives on 
good soils, and makes fair growth on even the poorest and driest gravelly slopes 
or sands. It is especially vigorous when young. The wood produces lumber almost 
equal to red pine in quality. A yield of 25,000 board feet per acre in 50 years 
should be obtained from a plantation established under fair conditions. 

Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca) is somewhat similar to Scotch pine in most 
respects, but is not so popular with planters in this country. 

SPRUCE 

Black spruce (Picea mariana) is the only species of spruce native to New 
Jersey, and is limited in range to a few swamps of high elevation in the northern 
counties. It is of little importance in this State since practically all of larger trees 
have been cut for lumber. Within its limited range natural reproduction should be 
favored 

Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), the common spruce of Europe, is a tree of 
considerable value because its wood is sought for paper pulp as well as for lumber, 
and because, by reason of its tolerance of shade, it is able to grow in close stands. 
For the best growth it requires fairly strong soil, and thrives on ground much more 
moist than is acceptable to any of the pines, although it will not grow well where 
the soil is constantly wet. For planting this species seems to be preferable to any 
of our native American spruces, such as white or red spruce, and will yield about 
30,000 board feet per acre in 60 years. It is recommended for planting in North 
Jersey, and experiments indicate that it is fairly well suited to the better South 
Jersey sands. It is being extensively planted for Christmas trees. Two year seed- 
lings of Norway spruce are commonly quite small, so that it is sometimes more 
desirable to plant three year old transplants. 

FIR 

Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) , a native of the northern states, does not grow 
naturally in New Jersey, but it is hoped that experimental plantings will prove it 
to be a good species for planting in the northern counties because of its adaptability 
to moist land, its high degree of tolerance to shade, and the production of a wood 
that is suitable for the same uses as spruce. In many situations the plantations 
may be made with a view to marketing Christmas trees, for which either species 
is suitable. A mixture of balsam and Norway spruce, or balsam and red or white 
pine, the balsam to be removed for Christmas trees at from 6 to 12 years, leaving 
the spruce or pine to grow to timber size, is ,often advisable. 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsnga taxifolia), the most important construction timber of 
the Pacific northwest, is not a true fir, but a species resembling both fir and hemlock 
in some respects. The quality of its durable lumber is far superior to either, com- 
paring favorably with that of red or shortleaf pine. Observations of New Jersey 
plantations, indicate that Douglas fir may be adapted to planting on soils that are 
not too poor or excessively wet, and that its growth is equal to that of Norway 
spruce, although the stands are not quite so dense. It makes attractive Christmas 
trees. 

Pajfc sixty-seven 



CEDAR 

Southern White Cedar {Chamaecyparis tliyoides) is the common cedar 
found in dense, pure stands in South Jersey swamps. Its soft, light but very durable 
lumber is extensively used for boat boards, siding, boxes, shingles and lath, and 
there is a constant demand for round timber for poles, posts, grape-stakes, bean 
poles, and rustic furniture. After lumbering, many cedar swamps in this region have 
been converted into cranberry bogs. While cedar usually grows slowly, because of 
the natural dense stands, it becomes valuable at an early age since small trees can 
be profitably marketed. Natural reproduction is usually abundant following lumber- 
ing, and swamps not needed for other purposes should be kept in cedar. 

Northern White cedar, or Arborvitae {Thuja occidentalis) is not native to 
New Jersey. Its general characteristics, habits of growth, quality of wood, and uses 
are similar to Southern White cedar, and it should be considered for planting in 
North Jersey swamps where timber growth is now lacking. 

Juniper or Red cedar {Juniperus Virginiana) is found scattered all over 
New Jersey, principally on old abandoned fields and along fence rows where seeds 
have been scattered by birds. Unlike white cedar, it is intolerant of shade, does not 
form dense stands, and avoids wet soils. It is common on dry sands and gravelly 
ridges where other more tolerant species do not crowd it out. Its very durable 
wood makes it a favorite for fence posts, but in this State its growth is so slow, 
and the form of the tree so scrubby, that it is not recommended for planting, although 
it should be favored where found naturally. In the southern states, where it makes 
better growth, it is used extensively for pencils, cedar chests, etc. 

LARCH 

Eastern Larch or Tamarack (Larix Americana). In a few scattered swamps 
in the northern part of New Jersey, tamarack reaches the southern limit of its 
natural range. Its wood is durable in contact with the soil, and is suitable for rail- 
road ties and fence posts, as well as for lumber. It is too scarce in New Jersey to be 
considered an important species, but natural reproduction should be favored where 
found. 

European Larch {Larix eiiropaea). This European species is especially valua- 
ble on account of the durability of its wood, and may be planted where the extinc- 
tion of chestnut is likely to create a demand for posts and poles. Unlike the eastern 
American species, it requires well-drained as well as fairly strong soil. It is usually 
advisable to plant it in mixture with some other species, allowances being made for 
its intolerance of much shade. European larch seedlings open their buds so early 
in the spring that fall planting must ordinarily be resorted to in this climate. 

HEMLOCK 

Hemlock {Tsuga canadensis) is found scattered throughout North Jersey in 
cool, moist situations, on rocky slopes and bordering streams and swamps, but is no- 
where abundant. Hemlock is very tolerant of shade and persists for years growing 
slowly under other trees. It produces a rather coarse, weak, low grade lumber, 
which is not at all durable,. It cannot be considered a valuable species, and is not 
recommended for planting except as an ornamental tree. In the past great quan- 
tities of hemlock bark have been used for tanning leather. 



Page sixty-eight 



MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 

Great variation of mechanical properties is found in woods of different 
species, and there is often considerable variation in wood of the same species, ac- 
cording to the age and condition of the tree, the rate of growth, the region of 
growth, the soil and the moisture conditions, the part of the tree from which the 
wood was taken, the treatment after cutting, the moisture content of the wood, or 
any abnormal conditions. The table on pages 72 and 73, compiled from records and 
tests of the U. S. Forest Service and other sources, gives a relative comparison of the 
mechanical properties of the more important and more common native species and 
those recommended for planting. 

Weight.— The weight of wood varies greatly in different species, and to a less 
extent in different individuals of the same species or even in different portions of the 
same tree. The table of relative weights of wood on pages 72 and 73 is based upon 
similar specimens of air-dry wood, that is, with a moisture content of about 12 per 
cent. Green living wood usually weighs from 20 per cent to 50 per cent more than 
dry wood because of its water content. When green, the sapivood, or outer living 
wood of the tree, is usually heavier than the inner lieartiuood; when dry, the heart- 
wood is generally heavier. The specific gravity of wood substance is about 1.6; hence 
the reason any wood floats in water is because of the buoyance of the air imprisoned 
in its cells and spaces. When this air is displaced by water the wood becomes 
"water-logged" and sinks. Woods composed of thick-walled fibres are dense and 
heavy. Other things being equal, the weight of wood is a fair criterion of its hard- 
ness and strength. 

Hickory is one of the heaviest woods. A cubic foot of green wood weighs about 
64- pounds, and about 52 pounds when air-dry. Black walnut is moderately heavy, a 
cubic foot weighing about 56 pounds when green, and 37 pounds when dry. White 
cedar is one of the very light woods, a cubic foot of green wood weighing 28 pounds, 
and dry wood 22 pounds. 

A cord of heavy wood, such as oak or hickory, weighs about 4000 pounds when 
air-seasoned; a cord of medium weight woods, such as pitch pine, red maple or 
chestnut, weighs about 3,000 pounds, air dried. 

The following are the accepted dry weights of 1,000 board feet of rough lumber 
in boards 1 inch thick. 

Hickory 5,000 pounds Shortleaf Pine 3,400 pounds 

Oak 3,900 pounds Chestnut 2,800 pounds 

Ash 3,500 pounds White Pine 2,400 pounds 

Hardness is a property which needs little explanation. Other things being 
equal, hardness is increased by seasoning, so that dry wood is usually harder than 
green wood. Weight of wood is ordinarily a fair test of its hardness, since heavy 
woods are usually hard, and light woods soft. The standard test for hardness is 
to measure the load required to embed a half-inch metal ball one half its diameter 
in the wood. End hardness of a board or timber is usually greater than side 
hardness. 

Stiffness, or rigidity, is the ability of wood to resist bending. Stiffness, to a 
certain degree, is a measure of strength, although some woods like pitch pine are 
stiff up to a certain limit, but break readily if the load is increased, while other 
woods like elm bend readily but resist breaking. Dry, seasoned wood is usually 
considerably stiffer than green wood. 

Strength may be used to describe several qualities of wood, which should not 
be confused. In the following table "Strength as a Beam" means the load a timber 
can support without breaking. Dry wood is usually stronger in this respect than 
green wood. Heavy wood is commonly but not always stronger than light wood. 
For instance, white ash is a lighter but stronger than black oak. Spruce is very light, 
but quite strong in comparison to its weight. A 12-inch beam of spruce would not 
support as heavy a load as a 12-inch beam of black oak would, but a 1,000 pound 
beam of spruce would be far stronger than an oak beam of equal weight. 

• Page sixty-nine 



Resistance to Shock.— The ability to absorb sudden shock without injury de- 
pends largely upon the quality of toughness. Some light woods like willow, gum 
and basswood are not strong, but withstand shock very well, although the harder 
and heavier woods are usually stronger in this respect. 

Durability means the ability to resist decay under unfavorable conditions, as a 
post, railroad tie or pole, in contact with the ground. Dry wood does not decay. 
Hence wood under cover, or protected by paint or preservative, may resist decay 
indefinitely, whereas an unprotected post of the same material would soon rot. 

Seasoned wood is much more durable than green wood. Heartwood is more 
durable than sapwood. Weight, hardness or strength are no indication of durability. 
Hickory is very heavy, very hard, and very strong, but -decays readily; locust is 
heavy, hard and strong, and very durable; cedar is very light, soft and weak, and 
very durable; spruce is light, soft and weak and not at all durable.. 

WOOD PRODUCTS AND USES 

Lumber. — Practically all species of trees that grow to saw-log size are used at 
times for lumber, and the lumber is put to countless uses, the most important of 
which have already been discussed in the description of the various tree species, 
pages 61 to 68. The qualities and characteristics of each kind of wood are indicated 
by the table on pages 72-73. Therefore it is not necessary to repeat this information 
here. It should be remembered, however, that lumber is usually the product of the 
highest quality, and trees of saw-log size or form can often be most profitably 
marketed as lumber, or to industries which make lumber from the logs. 

Poles. — Many thousands of poles are used annually in New Jersey for the con- 
struction of telegraph, telephone, trolley, electric and power lines. Species most suit- 
able for poles must produce a wood that is durable in the ground, not too heavy in 
weight on account of excessive transportation costs, yet strong enough to resist the 
stress and strains imposed upon it. Moreover, poles should be fairly cylindrical, 
straight and gradually tapering. The timber must be accessible and available in 
such quantities that it can be placed on the market at a reasonably low price. 

Chestnut and southern white cedar are the two native species commonly used 
for poles in this State. Both species have all the requisities for a good pole, being 
very durable, of light weight, and fairly abundant. In the near future our supply of 
pole material of chestnut and cedar will be practically exhausted, and then we must 
either use other species or import poles at a great cost from other states. White 
oak makes fairly durable poles, but is heavy to handle or ship. As more desirable 
species become exhausted pine will probably become an important pole wood when 
treated to prevent decay. 

Poles vary from 20 to 75 feet in length, but those most commonly used are from 
25 to 40 feet long with a minimum top diameter of 5 or 6 inches. Poles are sold 
by the piece, prices varying according to size, length and species. 

Furnace or Smelting Poles are used in considerable quantity by the smelters 
along the coast in the vicinity of Raritan Bay. Smelting poles are green, unseasoned 
hardwood poles usually from 20 to 40 feet long, with butt diameters ranging from 
6 to 20 inches, and minimum top diameters of from 3 to 6 inches. They are usually 
purchased by weight at so much per ton (shipping weight), although cord measure 
is occasionally used. 

Piling. — Large quantities of piling are used in the construction of docks and 
wharves, building foundations, and bridges. Piles are usually classified as per- 
manent or temporary, according to the intended use. White oak and chestnut are 
sold for permanent piling, while almost any species that can be driven with a pile 
driver can be used for temporary piling. The species most favored, however, are 
red oak, pin oak, black oak, pitch and shortleaf pine, beech, maple, hickory, ash and 
elm. Piles vary from 20 to 75 feet in length, with top diameters of from 6 to 10 
inches and butt diameter of from 12 to 20 inches. Piling is usually sold by the 
linear foot, prices varying with the size, length and species. 

Page seventy 



Ties. — With the rapid expansion in American railway development there has 
arisen a great demand for ties. The large number used can be comprehended from 
the fact that standard railway construction uses 2640 ties per mile of single track, 
and the average life of untreated ties is not over 5 years. 

Timber suitable for the best ties must be durable, strong enough to hold up 
under the load imposed, and abundant enough to supply the enormous demands. 
The strong, durable wood of black locust makes an ideal tie but this species is not 
abundant enough to be an important source. Cherry and walnut also make excellent 
ties but are too scarce and too valuable for other purposes to be extensively used. 
The white oaks, including both white oak and chestnut oak, form the bulk of the 
highest grade native ties. Chestnut is also extensively used. These species cannot 
fill the demand, however, so that other species less durable are being used after 
treating with preservatives. Red and black oak, yellow pine, birch, beech, maple, 
elm and gum, species which would ordinarily decay in less than 5 years, will last 
several times as long after the preservative treatment. 

Standard railroad ties are usually i]^ feet long, 6 to 8 inches thick, and 7 to 9 
inches wide. They are either sawed at mills or hewed in the woods. Trolley ties 
are usually smaller than standard ties and large quantities of "seconds" of railroad 
ties are used for trolley lines. 

Fence posts are usually cut 7 feet in length, although they may be longer or 
shorter for special use. Round posts are from 4 to 6 inches in diameter at the 
top end, while split posts are of similar volume. The principal qualifications of a 
good fence post are resistance to decay, ability to take and hold a nail well, and 
cheapness. Black locust, red cedar, chestnut, white cedar and white oak are the 
best post trees, in the order named. Almost any species makes good posts if the 
butts are treated with preservatives. 

Chestnut and cedar rail fences are fast disappearing from use with the grow- 
ing scarcity of available wood. A well made rail fence will last longer than a 
wire fence, is better for some purposes, and where suitable timber is available, may 
be cheaper. 

Mine Timbers. — Large quantities of New Jersey timber are used in the mines 
of North Jersey and Pennsylvania, in underground work for mine ties, rails, props, 
caps, and collars. Many species are used, although those that are strongest and 
most durable are preferred, such as oak and chestnut. Prop timber is usually from 
10 to 30 feet long with a top diameter of from 6 to 10 inches. Collar timber is 
ordinarily from 10 to 30 feet long (averaging 15 feet) with top diameters from 10 
to' 14 inches. Mine rails are squared 3 by 5 inches and from 12 to 16 feet long. 
Oak, beech, birch and maple are preferred. Mine ties, of oak or chestnut, are usually 
5 to 7 feet long, 4 to 5 inches thick and 4 to 5 inches wide, hewed or sawed on two 
sides. 

Cordwood. — The use of wood for fuel has been greatly stimulated during the 
period of the World War and the years immediately following, by the scarcity and 
high price of coal. In 1920 more than 33,000 farms in New Jersey were estimated 
to have used on the average of 8 cords per farm, or a total of 264,000 cords. Many 
thousand cords more were consumed by manufacturing industries and by residents 
of communities which found wood easier to get and cheaper to use than coal, at the 
prevailing prices. The coal miners' strike 'of 1922 further increased cordwood 
consumption. 

The use of cordwood should be encouraged, for there is an abundance of ma- 
taerial in our forests fit only for fuel, which will be wasted unless used in this way. 
When wood can be obtained from home woodlands, or where it can be purchased 
close at hand at reasonable prices, it is far cheaper than coal. Many farmers are 
using coal costing at the present time (1922) from $12 to $15 per ton, not including 
the hauling, when they could most profitably utilize their spare time by cutting and 
hauling cordwood from their woods. Allowing current wages for this labor, their 
wood would cost them from $3 to $5 per cord. Two pounds of wood have the 
heating value of one pound of hard coal, and a cord of heavy wood weighs about 
two tons; therefore a cord of such wood (oak, hickory, beech, birch, sugar maple) 

Page seventy-one 





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has the heating value of a ton of coal. A cord of lighter wood, such as chestnut, 
pine or red maple, equals two-thirds of a ton of coal in heating value. To be as 
cheap as wood at $6 per cord, coal must isell for from $6 to $9 per ton, delivered. 
Wood is frequently more convenient to use than coal, especially for cooking fires dur- 
ing the summer months. Moreover, the ashes of a cord of j wood contain a con- 
siderable quantity of valuable potash fertilizer. A cord of wood occupies 128 cubic 
feet of space, equal to a pile of 4-foot wood 4 feet high and 8 feet long. 

Baskets. — The basket industry is important in New Jersey. A number of 
basket factories in Central and South Jersey use large quantities of tulip poplar, red 
gum, basswood, maple, birch and elm logs in the manufacture of veneered baskets; 
fruit, berry and vegetable containers. The logs are cut into bolts of the desired 
length, subjected to a hot water or steam bath for a time to soften the wood, and then 
cut into thin sheets of veneer, from which basket slates are cut, by revolving the 
bolt against the cutting edge of the veneer lathe. 

Baskets made of split slats or staves from white oak or hickory bolts are com- 
monly used for oyster baskets, market baskets, and laundry baskets. Most of the 
baskets of this sort are made by hand, in small sized operations. 

Boxes. — The manufacture of box-boards is important from the standpoint of 
forestry, since relatively low grade lumber sawed from rapidly grown young trees 
can be profitably used for this product. Wood suitable for boxes should be light 
in weight and strong enough to stand up under use. The grade and quality of the 
lumber desired of course depends upon the intended use of the boxes. White pine, 
spruce and Southern yellow pine are imported into New Jersey for the best box 
boards. In South Jersey large quantities of pitch pine, shortleaf pine and white 
cedar are used for cranberry crates, fruit and vegetable boxes. Other native species 
suitable for boxes for certain purposes are red gum, hemlock, tulip poplar, bass- 
wood, chestnut, maple, sycamore and birch. 

Cooperage is the art of making vessels or containers of wood bound together 
by hoops. Tight Cooperage is distinguished from Slack Cooperage in its ability to 
contain liquids. Cooperage uses three forms of wood : — staves, heading, and hoops. 

Slack Cooperage products consist of barrels for shipping cement, flour, sugar, 
fruit, vegetables, and similar products; also tubs, buckets, kegs, firkins, etc. Almost 
any wood can be used for heading and staves, although those that are abundant and 
fairly cheap, light yet strong, and which retain their form when bent, are desired. 
Large quantities of oak were formerly used, but the high value of oak for other 
purposes has caused a change to less expensive woods. Red gum, elm, maple, 
beech and chestnut are our most common stave woods. Elm and hickory are com- 
monly used for hoops, although metal hoops are gradually replacing those of wood 
because of their cheapness. 

Tight Cooperage requires a more carefully manufactured article, because it must 
hold liquids. A wood which is hard and strong, of impermeable wood structure, 
which will not discolor or taint the contents of the barrel or container, is usually 
desired. White oak is considered the best wood for tight cooperage. Red oak is 
more susceptible to leakage owing to its open pores, but is also used, along with 
red gum, ash, beech, birch and maple. 

Wood Pulp and Paper. — The pulp and paper industry is not important in 
New Jersey because there are very limited supplies of the best pulp woods. A good 
pulp wood should have a long, strong fibre and should be soft, light colored and 
free from such constituents as resin, gum, tannin, etc. It must also be available in 
sufficient quantities and fairly economical in price. Some woods are admirably 
adapted to the manufacture of paper, yet are eliminated because they are not suffi- 
ciently available or are in greater demand for other purposes. Spruce is the best 
and most commonly used pulpwood, followed by fir, hemlock and aspen. None of 
these species are abundant in New Jersey, nor are they ever likely to be. 

In late years the consumption of paper has increased so greatly that a shortage 
of the accessible pulpwood supply has caused manufacturers to develop new pro- 
cesses whereby almost any species of wood can be used, especially for lower grades 

Page sevenfij-fovr 



of paper. Pine, maple, beech and chestnut, as well as other species, are now being 
used in considerable quantities and their use will undoubtedly increase. Small 
quantities of pitch pine from South Jersey are being used for paper. In the future 
sawmill and logging waste may form a considerable portion of the pulpwood supply. 

Excelsior consists of thin, curled strands or shreds of wood made by rapidly 
moving knives or fine steel teeth against ^ wood bolt. It is used extensively for 
upholstery, mattresses, and for packing miscellaneous articles which are susceptible 
to breakage. A wood suitable for excelsior should be soft but with a rather tough 
fiber, light colored and straight grained. It should preferably be free from gum 
or resin that are likely to discolor or taint any material with which it comes in 
contact. Basswood makes the best excelsior, but it is not extensively used because of 
the limited supply and the demand for it for other purposes. Cottonwood and aspen 
are most commonly used. Lower grades of excelsior are made from pine, tulip 
poplar, red gum, soft maple, spruce, chestnut, hemlock, and white cedar. 

Charcoal is charred wood as a result of partial or incomplete combustion. 
Years ago this industry was important in New Jersey and large quantities of hard- 
woods and pine were made into charcoal by the open-pit method, which consisted 
of slowly burning a compact conical pile of wood, covered over with grass, leaves, 
moss and earth, allowing just enough draft through prepared flues to cause oiily 
partial combustion. This crude method was very wasteful, because the volatile 
products which pass off in the process of combustion were inot recovered. Most 
charcoal is now made as a by-product in the distillation of wood in closed retorts, 
which process also obtains wood alcohol, acetic acid and wood tar from hard- 
woods, and turpentine, wood oils and tar from resinous woods such as pine. 

Charcoal was formerly used extensively in the manufacture of iron, but with 
improved methods and the greater use of coke, the demand for charcoal has fallen 
oflr. It is also used in the manufacture of gunpowder and explosives, as a filtrant, 
for medicinal purposes, as a reducing agent in metallurgical operations, and for fuel. 

Heavy dense woods, such as hickory, oak, maple, beech and birch are regarded 
as best for high grade charcoal, although other woods are also used. 

Hardwood Distillation.— An industry most important in the northern States 
is the distillation of hardwoods in closed retorts, where by the application of great 
heat, gases and oils are driven from the wood and converted into wood alcohol, 
acetic acid and wood tar, — leaving the wood itself in the form of charcoal. 
This industry lias almost entirely replaced the old open-pit method of burning 
charcoal. 

The best "chemical woods", as they are called, are birch, beech and maple, 
although oak, hickory and ash are also used to a less extent. Soft woods, or those 
containing excessive gum, resin or tannin cannot be used. The chemical industry 
has not been important in New Jersey, but may become so as the supply of accessible 
woods in the north becomes exhausted. 

Naval Stores. — Resinous woods, when Mistilled in closed retorts in much the 
same way as "chemical" hardwoods, yield the so-called naval stores, turpentine, 
wood oils and tar, as well as charcoal. Longleaf pine of the Southern States is the 
best wood for this kind of distillation, and practically the only one used at present. 
Our native pines — pitch pine and shortleaf pine — are less adapted to distillation, 
but may be used in the future as it becomes impossible for the Southern pines, the 
supply of which is rapidly becoming exhausted, to fill the demand for naval stores. 
Another form of distillation of resinous woods by the use of steam yields the naval 
stores, but leaves the wood in a condition suitable for paper pulp. 

The distillation of resinous woods is not the most important source of naval 
stores, since most of the turpentine, resin and tar is now obtained from the pitch of 
longleaf pine, collected from cuts made at the base of living trees. 

Tanning. — Many plants of the vegetable kingdom contain an astringent sub- 
stance known as tannin, which is used in tanning animal hides and skins. Prac- 
tically all of the commercial tannin is derived from a variety of barks, woods, leaves, 

or fruits of .a comparatively few species. 

Page seventy-five 



For a long time hemlock bark was the principal source of tannin in this country, 
but the bulk of the eastern supply has now been exhausted, and other species are 
being used extensively. Since the discovery of a method whereby the tannin con- 
tent of chestnut wood could be successfully extracted, more than two-thirds of all 
the tannic acid products made in the United States are now derived from this 
source. The extract of tannin from chestnut is largely confined to Virginia and 
North Carolina, since Southern chestnut contains more tannin than the same species 
grown in the North. The bark of chestnut oak and California tanbark oak is also 
rich in tannin, and is being used more extensively. Other materials less used are 
the barks of other oaks, especially black oak, and leaves of a Southern sumach. 

Imported materials also form an important source of tannin, the most important 
of which are Quebracko wood from South iAmerica, Mangrove bark from the 
tropics of Africa and Central' America, Myrobalan nuts from India, and sumach 
from the Mediterranean region. 

Dye Woods. — At the present time aniline dyes compose a large percentage of 
all the dyeing materials used, although for certain purposes a few dye woods are 
held in high esteem in the textile and leather trades. Most of the natural dyes are 
now produced from imported woods from Central and South America and the West 
Indies. Of the native species used, Osage orange is the most important. This 
species is most abundant in the lower Mississippi Valley but is occasionally planted 
as hedges in New Jersey. Other native materials used to a very limited extent are 
black walnut and butternut, sumach, alder, red gum, and dogwood. New Jersey 
probably will never be an important source of dye woods, but occasionally some of 
our forest by-products may be used in this industry. 

Wood Preservation. — Decay of wood is caused by various forms of bacteria 
and fungus growth which thrive only in the presence of moisture, air and warmth. 
Wood inside buildings does not rot because it is kept dry; wood under water resists 
decay, because of the absence of air and warmth; neither does wood decay rapidly 
in cold climates nor in winter. Wood exposed to the weather is ordinarily preserved 
by painting, which excludes moisture. Wood in contact with the ground, such as 
poles, ties and posts, decays most rapidly, because it is usually moist, especially 
where it touches the earth. Some woods are naturally more durable than others, due 
to their structure, or to some chemical substance within the wood. (See table, 
pages 72-73.) 

With the decreasing supply and increasing cost of timber, electric companies, 
railroads and other users of poles and ties find it a great saving to treat these 
products with a preservative, which doubles or trebles their life and saves the cost 
of several replacements. Creosote is one of the best preservatives known, because it 
effectively prevents and kills the growth of fungi, penetrates most woods readily, 
remains in the wood well to insure adequate protection, is safe to handle (although 
it burns readily and has a rather objectionable odor), and is reasonable in cost. 
Most effective penetration is obtained in commercial treating plants where hot 
creosote is forced into the wood under pressure. Other preservatives less exten- 
sively used are zinc chloride, tar and crude oil. 

With the death of chestnut, the growing scarcity of white and red cedar, and 
the high value of white oak for other products, farmers and other users of fence 
posts are finding it economical and desirable to use cheaper, more abundant, and 
less durable woods. At a cost of a few cents per post for creosoting, red oak, pine, 
similar woods can be made to last many years. Some dense woods, such as white 
oak and chestnut oak, resist the penetration of creosote. 

An excellent home treating plant can be constructed at the cost of a few dollars, 
with which a farmer can preserve his own posts and other timbers easily, as well 
as those of his neighbors. An iron tank, about 3 feet in diameter and 4 feet high, 
is erected over a brick or stone fireplace, and enough creosote is poured in to im- 
merse the butts of the posts to a point 6 inches above the ground line when set. 
The posts should be thoroughly air dried with the bark removed, before treatment. 
The creosote is then heated to a temperature of about 200 degrees (Fahrenheit) for 

Page seventy-six 



an hour or more, until the hot liquid has penetrated half an inch or so, enough to 
expel much of the air and moisture within the wood. The time required varies 
depending upon the kind of wood used. The posts are then removed and immersed 
in a similar tank of cool creosote, where the contraction draws the oil further into 
the wood. If just a few posts are to be treated, only one tank may be used by 
withdrawing the fire and allowing the wood and creosote to cool together. The 
metal drums of 40 or 50 gallons capacity, in which creosote is sometimes sold, make 
good treating tanks. 

A more simple method is to paint the post butts with several coats of hot creo- 
sote, although this method is not so satisfactory as the hot bath treatment, because 
sufficient penetration is not obtained. It may be used for preserving barn flooring, 
sills, and heavy timber that cannot be handled readily in tanks. 

Miscellaneous Products. — There are many other uses for our native woods 

which (;tfer jircfiabie markets for forest products in certain localities. The 
rustic furniture industry uses considerable quantities of small red and white 
cedar poles. The same species are desired for bean poles, grape stakes, oyster stakes 
and dye sticks. Boat fenders, made of green hardwood poles usually 5 to 8 feet 
long and from 5 to 9 inches in diameter, are used quite extensively. There is also 
some demand for naturally crooked oak pieces as ship knees for the prowes of 
small boats. Dunnage wood, cut in 2-foot lengths, used for packing ships cargoes, 
is occasionally a profitable way to dispose of pine suitable only for cordwood. 
Hickory, oak and ash plank or billets find a ready sale to manufacturers of tool 
handles and vehicle parts. Apple wood is used by the manufacturers of saw 
handles. Turning mills offer good markets for special woods. Very hard woods, 
such as dogwood and persimmon, are made into wooden bearings, shu'tles and 
similar products. These are but a few of the special uses which frequently enable 
a woodland owner to dispose of his timber with the greatest profit. Specifications 
an! prices can be obtained from manufacturers and buyers. 



TIMBER ESTIMATING 

An owner intending to cut or sell his timber should first estimate how much 
and what kinds he has to dispose of or use. This is especially important if he con- 
templates selling standing timber or stumpage. To estimate a tract of timber is to 
determine, as accurately as may be desirable, the contents of the trees standing 
within the given area, in terms of the products desired. For instance, a tract may 
be estimated to contain sawlogs yielding so many thousand board feet of lumber, 
or so many poles, ties, fence posts, cords of wood, etc. 

Many experienced woodsmen can determine fairly well the amount of timber 
within a tract simply by looking it over more or less carefully. When timber was 
abundant and cheap this method was good enough, but today it will hardly suffice. 
As timber increases in value, more careful estimates are desired. It is usually ad- 
visable to measure the diameter and height of the trees, and determine their contents 
from prepared volume tables, as explained later on pages 79 to 81. If the tract is 
small, or the timber valuable enough to justify the most accurate estimate possible, 
all the trees should be measured. If this is not considered necessary or if the tract 
is so large that a complete estimate is not practicable, the trees on certain sample 
portions of the tract may be measured, and from them the volume of the entire 
area may be computed. There are two methods commonly used, the "sample plot" 
and the "strip" method. 

Sample plots are selected in portions of the tract where conditions are average, 
and all the trees within these plots are measured, so that their volume may be cal- 
culated. Knowing the number of sample pints and the area of each, as well as the 
area of the entire tract, it is a simple matter to figure the stand per acre and the 
volume of the entire stand. Usually a one-quarter acre sample plot is preferred, 

Page seventy-seven 



which may be a circle with a 59 foot radius, or a square 104 feet on a side. If 
necessary, the boundaries of these plots may be marked with crayon on the trees, 
with light bark blazes or with stakes. 

It is most important that the sample plots represent average timber conditions, 
if an accurate estimate is to be had. On small tracts where the size, density and 
condition of the timber is uniform, accurate work is easier than where there is con- 
siderable variation within the tract. Each sample plot should represent average 
conditions for a definite and known area of similar timber. At least one quarter- 
acre plot for each 5 acres of timber should be measured. 

The strip method of timber estimating is commonly used on large tracts, 
especially when it is desirable to make a survey and map of the tract at the same 
time. It consists of measuring trees on narrow strips, usually one chain wide (4 
rods or 66 feet) distributed systematically over the forest and covering, in the 
aggregate, a specified portion of the total area. Ten square chains, or a strip 10 
chains long and one chain wide, equals an acre. A strip estimate requires a crew 
of two or three men, one to run the line of the strip with a compass, and to tally 
the trees measured by the others. The strips should be so planned that they rep- 
resent the average timber conditions of the tract. For instance, if a square 40 acre 
tract of timber (20 chains on a side) contained some scattered and scrubby timber 
running north and south through the center of the tract, the estimate strips should 
be run east and west, so that each strip would contain the average amount of good 
and poor timber. On a tract of this size and shape, 4 strips 1 chain wide running 
across the tract at intervals, would include 80 square chains, 8 acres, or 20 per cent 
of the entire area. From this the contents of the entire stand may be readily 
calculated 

Ordinarily the sample plot method will be found most satisfactory in small 
woodlots for inexperienced estimators. 

MEASURING TREES 

After deciding whether the estimate is to be based on a measurement of all the 
trees within the tract, or of those within sample plots, it is necessary to count and 
measure the size of the trees within the selected areas. The diameter, height and 
species of every tree should be recorded. 

Diameter. — Many lumbermen use the diameter at the top of the stump as the 
diameter of the tree, but this is unsatisfactory because stump heights vary, and be- 
cause there is usually a considerable swell at the base which varies greatly in trees 
of the same general size. Diameter breast-high (called D. B. H.) 4^ feet above the 
ground,, is convenient for measurement, avoids these objections, and is always used 
by foresters where diameter measurements of trees are required. 

An ordinary ruler or yard stick held against the tree parallel to the line of its 
diameter will enable a person to estimate the diameter fairly well. For more 
accurate work tree calipers are most convenient. They consist of a stick usually 36 
inches long graduated into inches and fractions of inches. At one end is a rigid 
arm set at right angles to the stick, while a similar arm is so fixed that it will slide 
back and forth at will. A pair of calipers can be easily made, although its accuracy 
depends upon the movable arm always remaining at right angles to the graduated 
base, and parallel to the rigid arm. If a tree is not exactly round both its largest 
and smallest diameters should be measured and the average between these diameters 
accepted as the true diameter. A diameter tape is sometimes used, where great 
accuracy is desired. The tape is passed around the tree at the proper point and the 
diameter read from the tape, since it varies directly with the circumference. 

Height. — In order to compute the contents of a tree, it is necessary to measure 
its height as well as diameter. When the entire contents of the tree are desired, 
including the cordwood in the limbs, the total height is usually measured. When 
the volume of the tree in terms of sawlogs, poles, ties, etc., is desired, the merchant- 
able height, or length of the usable portion of the trunk, is measured. If logs can be 
sawed down to 4 inches at the small end, then the merchantable height of the tree 

Page seventy-eight 



would be the distance from the stump up to the point where the tree measures just 
4 inches in diameter. 

Where the trees average about the same height throughout the stand, it is often 
sufficient to use the height of a few typical trees as average for all. Where trees 
of all sizes are found, they can often be grouped into three or four height classes, 
accurate enough for practical purposes. For instance, trees from 4 to 6 inches in 
diameter, 40 feet tall; 7-10 inches, 50 feet; 11-14 inches, 60 feet; 15-18 inches, 70 
feet ; etc 

The simplest way of getting the height of a stand is to cut down a few average 
trees and measure them with a tape. Where this is not advisable, fallen trees can 
often be found on the ground. Another method fairly accurate on level ground is 
to measure the length of a tree's shadow and compare it with the shadow of an 
object of known length. For instance, if an upright stick 6 feet long casts a shadow 
8 feet long, and the tree's shadow is 90 feet long, then, by direct proportion 
6 is to 8 as X is to 90 
8 X = 540 

X z= dlYi feet, height of the tree. 

Another method, fairly accurate for persons who can judge distance well, is to 
place a 10 foot pole beside the tree, stand back where the entire tree can be seen 
readily, and estimate how many 10 poles, one over the other, would be required to 
reach the top of the tree, or the point to which the height is desired. 

Any instrument that reads angles, a measuring tape and the application of 
trigonometry also gives the desired results. Hypsometers of several types, con- 
structed to give direct readings of height, are also to be had. 

Recording Measurements. — For the sake of accuracy and convenience, an 
estimate should record measurements of trees by species. The following tally is most 
convenient: 

NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE 



Height 
40' 



Diameter 
D. B. H. 

( 4" 

( 5" 



White Oak 
14 

17 



Red Oak 

9 

16 



Hickory 

2 
5 



Maple 


Mi.scellaneous 


19 


4 


26 


6 



50' 


\ 6" 


25 


31 


9 


14 


3 


/ 7" 


18 


26 


6 


7 


1 




f 8" 


11 


14 


4 








60' 


\ 9" 


7 


11 


1 










[10" 


3 


8 


2 









Total 



95 



115 



29 



66 



14 



COMPUTING THE CONTENTS OF TREES 

Having recorded the number of trees of various sizes on the area, the volume 
of each is found in a volume table, and the total contents determined by multiplying 
by the number of trees of each size and summing up the total. 

Volume tables give the contents of normal trees of various sizes, and are 
made from careful measurements of average trees. When the diameter and height 
(either total height or used length) of a tree are known, volume tables give the 
contents of average trees of like dimensions. The volume may be expressed in 
board feet, cubic feet, cords, — or in the number of posts, ties, etc., for each tree. 

Volume tables are ordinarily made for one species only, because the form, taper, 
shape and crown contents of different species vary, and with these variations, the 
contents of the tree. Where exact results are neither expected nor desired, a volume 
table for one species will give approximately correct results for other species of 
similar form of growth. 

The following volume tables represent several types which may be useful to 
woodland owners desiring to estimate their timber. 



Page seventy -nine 



VOLUME TABLES 
RED OAK (a) 



Diameter 
Breast-High 
(inches) 


Length of Tree Used (Feet) 
10' 20' 30' 40' 50' 


5" 
6" 

7" 


Volume in board feet of sawed lumber (b) 


6 

9 

14 


15 
22 


29 


34 




8" 

9" 

10" 


18 

25 
31 


30 
40 
50 


39 
49 
60 


43 
58 
73 


99 


11" 
12" 
13" 


37 
44 
54 


63 
78 
93 


74 

89 

107 


90 
110 
132 


118 
143 
174 


14" 
15" 
16" 


65 


109 
124 
143 


126 
149 

173 


160 
190 

225 


208 
243 
288 


17" 
18" 
19" 




163 
181 

202 


201 
232 
265 


262 330 
308 378 
356 428 


20" 








405 


478 



(a) Table from U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 36, "The Woodman's Handbook". 

(b) Actual mill-cut in untrimmed inch boards. 

This table will give fairly accurate results for other hardwoods such as white 
oak, hickory, ash, etc. 



SMALL, SECOND-GROWTH HARDWOODS (a 


) 


Diameter 




Breast-High | Total Height of Tree (Feet). 




(inches) 


20' 30' 40' 50' 


60' 




Volume of cordwood in cubic feet (b) 




2" 


0.2 


0.5 








3" 1 0.5 


0.8 


1.1 






4" I 0.9 


1.4 


1.8 






5" 




2.3 


2.7 


3.2 




6" 




3.4 


4.0 


4.8 


5.7 


7" 




4.8 


5.7 


6.6 


7.9 


8" 






7.7 


9.0 


10.6 


9" 








11.8 


13.6 


10" 








15.3 


17.3 


11" 








19.6 


22.6 


12" 








24.6 


28.0 


13" 






32.2 



(a) Table from U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 36, "The Woodsman's Handbook". 

(b) This table, based upon the measurement of white oak, may be used for other 
second growth hardwoods to be cut into cordwood, down to sticks (limbs) 1 inch 
in diameter. A cord made up of mixed diameters of second growth wood is 
considered to contain 80 cubic feet of solid wood, and this table can be reduced 
to cords by dividing by 80. Experience has shown that where very small trees 
are cut, ranging from 2 to 6 inches in diameter, the contents of a piled cord of 
wood may be as low as 65 cubic feet. 

Page eighty 



SHORTLEAF PINE (a) 



Diameter 
Breast-High Total Height of Tree. (Feet) . 
(inches) 50' 60' 70' 80' 




Volume in board feet by the Scribner Log Rule. 


9" 
10" 
11" 


40 
45 
50 


50 
60 
70 


60 
80 
95 


95 
115 


12" 
13" 
14" 


65 


90 
105 
130 


110 
135 
160 


135 
160 
190 


15" 

16" 
17" 




160 


190 
225 
260 


220 
260 
300 


18" 
19" 

20" 






300 
345 


345 
395 
450 


21" 

22" 






505 

570 



(a) Table from U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 36, "The Woodsman's Handbook". 

This table is based on measurements of shortleaf pine, but will give fairly ac- 
curate results for other South Jersey pines such as pitch pine and scrub pine, 
where the trees are of good form and height. This table will not give accurate 
results for low, scrubby timber. In that case probably the best way to compute 
the contents of a tree is to estimate the number and size of the logs which could 
be cut, and get their volume by the use of a log rule, such as that described on 
page 83. For instance, a tree 35 feet tall with a D. B. H. of 14 inches will 
probably cut a butt log 12 feet long with a top diameter of 10 inches and a top 
log 12 feet long, 6 inches at the small end. Scribner's log rule gives the con- 
tents of such logs as 40 board feet and 12 board feet respectively, or a total of 
52 board feet for the tree. 

PINE CORDWOOD (a) 



Diameter 

Breast-High 

(inches) 


20' 


Total Height of Tree (Feet) 
30' 40' 50' 60' 


70' 


2" 
3" 
4" 


Volume of entire tree in cubic feet (b) | 


0.3 
0.6 


09 
1.5 


1.2 

2.0 


2.4 






5" 

6" 
7" 




2.2 


2.9 
4.2 
5.7 


3.6 
5.2 
7.2 


6.3 

8.7 


10.2 


8" 

9" 

10" 






7.5 


9.4 
11.6 
14.1 


11 3 
13.9 
16.6 


13.1 
16.2 
19.2 


11" 

12" 








16.8 


19.6 
22.6 


22.5 
25.7 



(a) Table from U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 36, "The Woodsman's Handbook", 
based on measurements of scrub pine. 

(b) This table will give fairly accurate measurements for native Jersey pines cut 
into cordwood, pulpwood or charcoal wood. To reduce cubic feet to cords of 
peeled. pulpwood, divide by 110. To reduce to cords of unpeeled charcoal wood 
or cordwood (down to 2") divide by 100, or bv 80 if small trees onlv (less than 
6 inches B. B. H.) are used. 

Page eighty-one 



UNITS OF MEASURE— CONVERTING FACTORS 

There are many units of measure used in expressing the volume or contents of 
a tree, log, or stick of timber, varying according to products and local practise. It is 
important to know just what these various units of measure are, and their relation 
to each other, or the "converting factors". 

Board Measure. — Board measure is designed primarily for the measurement of 
sawed lumber. The unit is the board foot, which is a board 1 inch thick and 1 foot 
square, or its equivalent. For example, an inch board 12 inches wide and 16 feet 
long contains 16 board feet; an inch board 9 inches wide and 16 feet long contains 
12 board feet; a 2-inch plank 9"xl6' contains 24 board feet. Although not strictly 
accurate, the lumber trade usually figures boards under 1 inch in thickness as inch 
lumber. Lumber is sold in large quantities by the thousand board foot measure — 
M. B. M. 

Log Measure.— The volume of sawlogs is usually measured and expressed in 
the number of board feet of lumber they will actually cut, allowing for waste in 
slabs, sawdust, etc. Log rules give the board foot contents of logs, based upon 
their length and the diameter of the small end inside the bark. The amount of 
lumber which can be cut from logs of a given size is not uniform, because the factors 
which determine the amount of waste vary under different circumstances, such as 
the thickness of the saw, the thickness of the boards, the size of the smallest board 
which may be utilized, the skill of the sawyer, the efficiency of the machinery, the 
defects in the log, etc. This lack of uniformity has led to wide differences of opinion 
as to how log rules should be constructed. There are many log rules in use, some 
more accurate than others, and unfortunately some of the most inaccurate are most 
popular with lumbermen. For example, the Doyle rule is commonly used in New 
Jersey, and is in favor with many lumbermen who buy timber because it gives a 
very low estimate for small logs, although fairly accurate for large sized timber. 
The Scribner log rule will ordinarily give a more accurate measure for logs below 
28 inches in diameter and should be more generally used_ 



COMPARISON OF DOYLE AND SCRIBNER LOG RULES 
Contents of 16-foot logs in board feet for different diameters. 

Diameter of log in inches at small end. 
6" 8" 10" 12" 16" 20" 24" 28" 32" 36" 

Scribner 18 

Doyle 4 

The diameter of logs is always measured at the small end inside the bark, since 
this limits the width of the boards. The scaler must make allowance for defects 
such as decay, crooks, etc. Log rules may be used in a rough estimate of standing 
timber by estimating the number and size of the logs in a tree, the contents of 
which may be determined from the log rule. 



32 


54 


79 


159 


280 


404 


582 


736 


923 


16 


36 


64 


144 


256 


400 


576 


784 


1024 



Page eighty-two 



SCRIBNER LOG RULE 

Contents of Average Logs in Board Feet. 



Diameter of log 
















at small end 






Length of Log (Feet) 






(inches) 


8' 


10' 


12' 1 


14' 


16' 


18' 


20' 


6" 


8 


10 


12 


14 


18 


22 


24 


7" 


12 


15 


18 


24 


28 


32 


34 


8" 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


40 


44 


9" 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


10" 


27 


34 


40 


45 


50 


55 


65 


11" 


33 


42 


50 


55 


65 


70 


80 


12" 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


88 


98 


13" 


48 


61 


73 


85 


97 


109 


122 


14" 


57 


72 


86 


100 


114 


129 


143 


15" 


71 


89 


107 


125 


142 


160 


178 


16" 


79 


98 


119 


139 


159 


178 


198 


17" 


92 


116 


139 


162 


185 


208 


232 


18" 


106 


134 


160 


187 


213 


240 


267 


19" 


120 


150 


180 


210 


240 


270 


300 


20" 


140 


175 


210 


245 


280 


315 


350 


21" 


152 


190 


228 


266 


304 


342 


380 


22" 


167 


209 


251 


292 


334 


376 


418 


23" 


188 


236 


283 


330 


377 


424 


470 


24" 


202 


252 


303 


353 


404 


454 


505 


25" 


229 


287 


344 


401 


459 


516 


573 


26" 


250 


312 


375 


439 


500 


562 


625 


27" 


271 


342 


411 


479 


548 


616 


684 


28" 


291 


363 


436 


509 


582 


654 


728 


30" 






493 


575 


657 


739 


821 


32" 






552 


644 


736 


828 


920 


34" 






600 


700 


800 


900 


1000 


36" 






692 


807' 


923 


1038 


1152 



Cord Measure. — Fuel wood, piilpwood, and material cut into short sticks for 
various uses is usually measured by the cord. A standard cord is 128 cubic feet of 
stacked wood, usually a pile of 4-foot wood stacked 4 feet high and 8 feet long. 
As a matter of fact a piled cord of wood 4'x4'x8' does not actually contain 128 
cubic feet of solid wood because of the air space between the sticks. Other things 
being equal, the larger and more symmetrical the sticks, the greater the quantity of 
solid wood. A cord of straight, round 6"-10" bolts of pulp wood piled closely may 
contain 90 to 110 cubic feet of wood, whereas a cord of fuel wood, consisting of 
split wood and small limbs, loosely piled, may contain as little as 65 or 70 cubic feet. 
Under average conditions a cord of wood is assumed to contain 80 cubic feet of 
wood, or 500 board feet, if expressed in the equivalent of sawed lumber. A pile of 
stove wood cut into 16-inch lengths, 4 feet high and 8 feet long, is often sold as a 
cord, although actually it contains only one-third of a cord. 

Cubic Measure— A cubic foot of wood is a block 12"xl2"xl2", or its equiva- 
lent. A cubic foot of wood could be split into 12 board feet, but if sawed into inch 
boards with a saw 14" thick (kerf), would actually yield 9.6 board feet. Some 
volume tables express the contents of a tree in cubic feet, which may be converted 
into the number of board feet, cords, or products desired. As a unit for expressing 
the contents of a tree, the cubic foot is more accurate than the cord, because air 
space, which varies greatly, must always be considered in cord measure. 

Page eight ii-three 



CONVERTING FACTORS 



The following list of wood equivalents or converting factors are those com- 
monly accepted in this region, and will help anyone determine the approximate con- 
tents of piles or pieces of timber. 



Products. 

Cord (Shingle Bolts) 

Cord (fuel) 

Pole (electric) 

Pole (electric) 

Tie (standard) . . . . 

Tie (standard) . . . . 

Tie (second) 

Tie (narrow gage) 

Pole (fence) 

Post (fence) 



Equivalent in 


Assumed 


Board Feet. 


Dimensions 


600 


4' X 4' x8' 


500 


4' X 4' x8' 


60 


7"x30' 


100 


9"x30' 


42 


7"x9"x8i^' 


33 


6"x8"x8' 


28 


6"x7"x8' 


21 


6"x7"x6' 


10 


4"x20' 


7 


6"x 7' 



The following table indicates approximately the number of average trees of any 
diameter required to yield one thousand board feet of lumber or one cord of wood. 

NUMBER OF AVERAGE TREES OF EACH SIZE TO YIELD— 



Diameter of 
TreeD.B. H. 


ONE CORD 


1000 BOARD FEET OF 
LUMBER 


(Inches) 


Hardwoods 


Pine 


Hardwoods (a) 


Pine 


4" 
5" 
6" 


50 
30 
20 


70 
45 
30 


65 


50 


7" 
8" 
9" 


15 
10 

7 


20 
13 ' 
10 


50 
35 
25 


35 
25 
20 


10" 
11" 
12" 


5 
4 
3.5 


8 
7 
6 


20 
16 
12 


16 • 
13 

10 


13" 
14" 
15" 


3.0 
2.7 
2.5 


4.5 
3.7 
3.0 


10 
9 
8 


7 
6 

5 


16" 
17" 
18" 


2.0 
1.7 
1.5 


2.5 
2.1 
1.9 


7 
6 

5 


4 

3.1 

2.6 


19" 
20" 
21" 


1.3 
1.2 
1.0 


1.6 
1.5 
1.4 


4 

3.5 

3.1 


2.4 
2.1 
1.8 


22" 
23" 
24" 


.9 
.8 
.7 


1.2 
1.1 

1.0 


2.7 
23 
2.0 


1.7 
1.6 
1.5 



Part of table taken from U. S. F. S. (Farmer's Bulletin 1210). 

(a) For every 1000 feet of lumber, about 2/3 of a cord of wood can also be cut 
from the tops. 



Page eighty-four 



TREE PESTS 

Ordinarily trees or woods in thrifty condition are little harmed by attacks of 
insects or fungus diseases. Dead, dying and weakened trees breed injurious pests. 
Therefore, the best protection is to keep the trees growing vigorously, and remove 
the dead or weakened individuals. 

Of course there are exceptions. Occasionally a new insect or disease is in- 
troduced which does great damage even in healthy timber before control measures 
can be adopted, or before the trees develop some degree of immunity. The chestnut 
blight is an example of a new fungus disease which did, and is continuing to do, 
untold damage to the chestnut trees of this country. The very nature of this fungus 
growth, which develops beneath the bark of the tree and spreads by means of minute 
spores carried by the wind, insects, birds and squirrels, makes it impossible for man 
to control or prevent its spreading. In time the chestnut may develop some im- 
munity from this fungus, at least enough to survive its attack, but as yet there is no 
direct evidence that such will be the case. 

An insect or fungus disease is commonly most injurious to a single tree species. 
For instance, the chestnut blight affects only chestnuts, the white pine weevil and the 
blister rust disease attack only the white (5-needle) pines. Defoliating worms like 
the larvae of the Gipsy moth, recently discovered in Somerset County, sometimes 
attack all kinds of trees. 

A new pest recently introduced is most serious for a time until nature has had 
a chance to reestablish a balance. This she does by developing natural enemies to 
keep the tree pests in check. Importing plants from foreign lands has been respon- 
sible for most serious attacks within late years. 

In the case of shade or ornamental trees most insects and many diseases can be 
controlled or prevented by spraying or other special care, but in the case of forest 
trees such intensive measures are usually too expensive to be practical. 

Remember that thrifty, vigorous trees suffer least from insects or diseases. In- 
formation regarding the habits, damage and control of injurious insects may be had 
upon request to the State Entomologist, New Brunswick, N. J. The State Plant 
Pathologist at New Brunswick will furnish similar information regarding fungus 
diseases of trees. Specimens of the pests and samples of their work should accom- 
pany requests for information. 



FOREST FIRES 

must be controlled. They are the forests' worst enemy, and unless they are ma- 
terially reduced in numbers and size the threatened timber shortage will soon be- 
come a reality. Remember that the first step in Forestry is protection from fire. 
Do your part and encourage your neighbor to do his. Let's get together and help — 



"MAKE NEW JERSEY SAFE FOR FORESTRY" 



Page eighty-five 



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